The choice of varnish for painting can turn into a real headache for a novice artist, while an experienced master already knows exactly what kind of product he needs.

Arriving at the store, a novice painter runs the risk of acquiring something completely different from what he wanted, so first you need to clearly determine the purpose of the varnish.

What are varnishes for?

The main purpose of varnish for painting is to cover already completed works. Lacquers designed for this purpose are called covering . If the goal of the artist is to strengthen the coating or dilute the paint mass, as well as to make the coating transparent, then he needs binder or thinning varnish.

Previously, varnishes were made mainly from natural resins, but over time, this material was replaced by synthetic materials, which made it possible to make many varnishes. universal in application.

The question of whether to use synthetic or natural varnish depends on the personal preference of the artist, but it should be remembered that it is not advisable for people with allergies to inhale the fumes of synthetic materials (for example, acrylic).

Interesting: some professionals do not trust manufacturers and make varnishes themselves, but for this you need to have all the necessary materials and a certain level of skill so that the varnish does not harm the picture.

A thin layer of varnish creates a protective film that will not only prevent the adverse effects of external factors, but also make the colors deeper, brighter, and fine details clearer and more textured.

For example, each of us has seen paint faded under the influence of the sun (to be more precise, ultraviolet radiation) on various media (street banners, paper, cardboard, fabric). The same can happen with drawing. Humidity also plays an important role: at its elevated level, the paint can simply fall off the canvas, and at a reduced level, it can crack and crumble. This is especially true for oil paints applied in a thick, thick layer.

Works of pictorial art are also affected by temperature changes, dust settling, liquids and gases.

When added to paint, varnishes increase its strength and elasticity, are able to increase the depth and intensity of color, give the coating transparency and the effect of a glass coating.

Types of varnishes for painting

Among modern varnishes there are: dammar, acrylic-pistachio, pistachio and acrylic-styrene. There is also retouching varnish, fixative varnish and fir varnish.

Dammar varnish is the most common. Its advantages include low cost and the ability to protect the picture from sunlight. But, over time, such a varnish turns yellow, so it is not advisable to use it for paintings made in cold colors.

Perfect for them acrylic-pistachio varnish. It is characterized by transparency and elasticity of the coating, does not become cloudy over time, but it costs much more and is not so common.

pistachio varnish got its name due to the main ingredient - pistachio resin. It practically does not differ from the previous type of varnish, but is even rarer on sale.

Acrylic-styrene varnish is recognized as the most effective. In addition to the fact that it creates a thin, transparent coating, does not change color or yellow, it has good waterproof properties.

All of these varnishes give glare, so if the picture is under bright lighting, there is reason to prefer matte varnishes. In terms of properties, they do not differ from glossy ones, except that they are not able to increase the depth of color saturation.

When choosing a varnish, pay attention to the date of manufacture and expiration date. For most products, it is no more than six months, and for some varnishes, no more than three.

If the varnish is expired, then it will stick even after drying, attracting dust and dirt, and can soften with high humidity.

Retouch varnishes should not be confused with cover coats, since they have the opposite principle of operation: they are used to dissolve the paint layer in order to continue working on the dried picture. It is applied before starting work on the desired area. After drying, the varnish is applied again to the work area. Retouching varnish, slightly dissolving the top dried layer of paint, enhances the adhesion of the new layer. Thus, a "protection" against suffocation is obtained.

Tip: a simple and effective way from the old masters - a cut of a head of garlic - perfectly replaces retouching varnish.

Lacquer fixative used to fix drawings with a pencil, charcoal, pastel, etc. After drying, it forms a film that allows you to remove dust from the picture. In addition to physical "protection" this varnish allows you to keep the richness of the color.

fir varnish similar to dammar, that is, it is also made from resins. Less common, since dammar varnish, or "tee" (a mixture of thinner, varnish and linseed oil) is usually used.

Varnish manufacturers

Among the manufacturers of varnishes, the most famous is the company SONNET. Varnishes from this manufacturer are not expensive, but at the same time they have good functionality, but they are poorly applied, so they are ideal for already experienced artists.

Lacquer is more suitable for beginners REVEES . It is identical in price SONET but is much easier to apply and creates an even coverage.

A more expensive and durable option is a product of a French manufacturer Lefranc Bourgeous . It will truly preserve the beauty of your work for many years to come.

Faculty: Folk art culture and design

Department: Arts and Crafts

Abstract on the topic: "Artistic varnishes of the East"

Moscow, 2011

Introduction……………………………………………………………………...3

Artistic varnishes of the East

1. China………………………………………………………………………….4

2. Japan……………………………………………………………………...6

3. Korea………………………………………………………………………..8

4. Vietnam…………………………………………………………………….10

5. Persia……………………………………………………………………...12

6. India…………………………………………………………………….... 13

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………..15

Introduction

Art varnishes (English lacquer, French Laques, German Lackarbeiten), a technique for decorating wood, metal, papier-mache products, coated with a transparent or denser substance called varnish. As a rule, these products, decorated with carving, painting, inlay, engraving, are distinguished by the brilliance of a mirror polished surface, the brightness (contrast) of color, and in carved varnishes - a rich play of chiaroscuro.

Lacquer miniature - images of small sizes, made on a lacquer surface. These can be independent plates, but more often such images adorn functional objects - dishes, decorative vases, jewelry boxes, jewelry, etc. The procedure for applying varnish is quite lengthy. It is preceded by a special priming, depending on the base, then begins multiple varnishing, drying and polishing the surface, applying special image paints.

Lacquer painting was born in ancient times in the Far East. It is known from old Chinese manuscripts that the sap of the lacquer tree was used to decorate the surface of wooden products for another 4,000 years.

China

Lacquer has been used in Southeast and East Asia since ancient times. In Yunnan, lacquer was produced already in the Bronze Age. Since ancient times, the sap of the lacquer tree has been used in China for the basis of colorful coatings. At first, varnish was written like ink using bamboo sticks, later it was used for protective and decorative purposes: they covered food dishes, and then ceremonial vessels. Since the reign of the Zhou Dynasty (c. 1027-256 BC), the areas of application of lacquer have expanded - they began to decorate carriages, teams, bows and arrows, as well as other objects. The use of varnish was regulated by an official charter. At the same time, lacquer began to be mixed with gold. Legends have come down that in the east of China during the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD) they were able to make varnishes of great beauty. During this period, the use of varnish increased even more. The first examples of lacquer painting appeared on utensils, silk, and paper.

The Chinese masters did not reveal the technological secrets of varnishing. Varnishes were not only a luxury item: lacquer coatings increased the life of objects in a humid tropical climate. But gradually, despite precautions, these secrets became known in the countries of Southeast Asia, which happened simultaneously with the spread of Buddhism. In addition, Chinese lacquers and lacquers found their way to neighboring countries during military conflicts and through trade contacts. Apparently, Korea and Japan were the first countries to export varnishes.

Over time, lacquer techniques became more complicated, more and more new ones appeared; the number of components in the formulations increased. To date, information has been preserved on a large number of lacquer techniques in which the paint layer is a composition of a large number of layers.

During the Song Dynasty (960-1279), the lacquer industry in China developed more and more, and the use of gold and silver lacquer in palace utensils reached a record. The main centers of lacquer production were Jiaxing and Suzhou. Typical lacquer boxes from the early Song period are rhino horn colored (shades of brown) or black and red with inclusions of gold dust or silver wire. They are one of the most widespread and famous examples of lacquer art from this period.

During the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), Chinese authors wrote that along with the existence of carved red lacquers, so-called pierced lacquers inlaid with mother-of-pearl appeared. Articles made of red carved lacquer (boxes, trays, screens, cupboards, tables, thrones, etc.) were decorated with complex multifaceted carvings depicting flowers and plants. But there were also painted lacquers, covered with gold and floral patterns, complemented by inlays. They covered screens, furniture, panels, and the main center for their manufacture was the city of Fuzhou. Painting began to develop on a cut-through black lacquer background (subsequently, these lacquers began to be called "Coromandel").

In China, towards the end of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), as a result of the troubles that accompanied the fall of the last Ming emperor, lacquer production fell into decline. The second and perhaps the greatest of the emperors of the Manchu dynasty was the emperor Kangxi (1661-1722), who in 1680 revived the lacquer industry.

Japan

The art of lacquer entered Japan from China via Korea c. 6th century During the Heian era (8th-12th centuries), Japanese lacquers acquired their own style, and the Chinese influence was significantly weakened. The first mention of maki-e, a purely Japanese decorative technique, dates back to the 9th century, and since that time its development has not been interrupted. Further technical and artistic achievements date back to the Kamakura (12th-14th centuries) and Ashikaga shogunate (14th-16th centuries) periods; of these, it should be noted kamakurabori - carved wood, covered with a thick layer of red or black lacquer. Gold lacquer from the Ashikaga period was the envy of China. The Momoyama period (late 16th - early 17th century) includes the work of the famous master Hon-Ami Koetsu, marked by a confident and simple design made using mother-of-pearl and metal inlay technique combined with maki-e.

During the era of the Tokugawa Shogunate (17th-19th centuries), the techniques described above were developed in the work of such outstanding artists as Ogata Korin, Ritsuo and Shibata Zeshin. During this period, Japanese varnishes were exported to Holland, but their first exhibition in Europe was organized in 1867 in Paris.

Artistic varnishes are the most significant and beautiful type of arts and crafts in Japan. The lacquer paintings reflected the aesthetic ideas of the Japanese people, their contemplative-poetic worldview. The works of this deeply national art form have always been highly valued, as they required a huge amount of labor, great technical knowledge, and above all, a high artistic culture. The art of lacquer painting has centuries-old traditions, already in the 6th-7th centuries. it has developed to a great extent. The technique of artistic varnishes is very complex. This, at times, is more than a hundred labor-intensive and lengthy processes.

In the countries of the Far East, lacquer is obtained by cutting the trunk or branches of a lacquer tree. Raw varnish is carefully filtered and various oils and substances are added to it in order to obtain varnishes of different colors and textures. In a liquid state, the varnish is applied in layers on a treated smooth surface of metal, wood, silk or paper. The most common basis for lacquerware is hinoki coniferous wood, which does not crack when the temperature changes and is excellently polished. Even the thinnest cuts of this tree are distinguished by great strength. After careful leveling, the tree is glued with thin hemp cloth and paper, after which it is processed again, smoothing out the bumps. Each layer of varnish must dry in humid air for at least 12 hours, and in some cases for several days, then it is polished with coal dust. The last, top layer of varnish is polished with deer antler ash. Thus, only to obtain a varnish surface, up to 60 operations are performed. Then it is decorated with painting, carving, inlay.

The most common black lacquer is obtained by adding iron salts to a transparent lacquer. The shiny, sparkling surface of black lacquer products is very beautiful in itself. Often they use lacquer dyed with cinnabar. Products covered with smooth or embossed gold lacquer are famous for their unique beauty. Real gold powder is sifted through a silk sieve onto a wet layer of clear lacquer. After drying, the product is carefully polished.

There are many types of varnish and a wide variety of decor techniques. Initially, only household utensils were covered with varnish. It is very durable, waterproof and does not break down from hot water. But already in the 8th-12th centuries, as is known from written sources, there were workshops for artistic varnishes in Japan. During this period of domination of the aristocracy and the flourishing of court culture with its sophistication and luxury, lacquer products were increasingly used to decorate luxurious palace and temple interiors. In the palaces of the aristocracy, lacquer screens and screens, low writing tables, and all kinds of lacquer boxes became common. Doors, ceilings and altars of Buddhist temples were painted with gold lacquer and inlaid with mother-of-pearl. There were lacquer statues of deities, caskets for cult objects. With great patience, the craftsmen decorated the products, created more and more complex compositions, at the same time taking care of the connection of the products with the surrounding interior. The development of the production of artistic lacquers caused a number of imperial decrees on the cultivation of lacquer trees and the prohibition of the export of lacquer from the country.

Korea

Artistic varnishes were known in Korea at the beginning of our era. The production of artistic varnishes was wider in the state of Korea, where the lavish lifestyle of court circles contributed to the creation of various artistic products that served as decorations for palaces and rich dwellings. Toilet boxes, boxes for books and papers, boxes for stationery, trays and dishes - all these lacquerware with different ornamentation went well with the decoration of the front rooms. The najon technique became widespread in the decoration of varnishes. This type of technique consisted of a number of processes.

Personally, a piece of wood, with the help of glue and boiled rice, was pasted over with a thin hemp cloth and covered with black varnish, which was polished with soft paper. After drying, the unevenness formed on the lacquer surface was carefully compared using a mixture of wax, boiled rice and coarse lacquer. After the second application of this composition, plates of mother-of-pearl or other materials cut according to the pattern were attached to the lacquer surface with fish glue and pressed with an iron.

The next process consisted in applying several layers of varnish to the surface of the product, so that the mother-of-pearl pattern disappeared and appeared again only after successive grinding of the layers with coal powder from the gingo tree and a special stone.

Transparent plates made of tortoise shell were also widely used to decorate lacquerware; on the reverse side, they were sometimes tinted with red or yellow paint, which created a special effect. Gold and other metals were often used for decoration. The masters loved complex ornamental compositions of mother-of-pearl plates and shells combined with silver or copper wire.

The art of the state of Kore, created mainly for the narrow circles of the court and Buddhist aristocracy, gradually faded away. Many art workshops ceased to exist during this period, and those who continued to work could no longer create, as before. In the middle of the 14th century, when the Yuan dynasty in China was significantly weakened by mass uprisings, the Kore state began to fight for liberation from the foreign yoke, which ended after the overthrow of the Mongol dynasty in China in 1368. But the complete liberation of the country did not contribute to a new upsurge of culture and art, since at the end of the XIV century. inside the country, an internecine struggle broke out between large feudal lords for power and for the redistribution of land.

In the early period of the Li dynasty, in the 14th-16th centuries, the nature of the decoration of lacquer products changed significantly. In search of more artistic expressiveness, to replace the thin, small patterns of mother-of-pearl that covered the entire surface of the products from the Goryeo period, new motifs were created in the form of large flowers and foliage, which clearly appeared on the lids and sides of chests and boxes, contrasting with the black shiny background.

The master used the thinnest plates of blue mother-of-pearl, which, sparkling and shimmering, create a kind of decorative play of light on the black surface of the cabinet. Lacquered chests for storing clothes are no less colorful, their flat lids and sides were decorated with very complex and beautiful mother-of-pearl landscapes, which went well with shiny metal linings and handles.

Russian lacquer painting is a unique phenomenon of world artistic culture. Having absorbed the achievements of the lacquer art of the West and East, accumulated over the centuries, she enriched it with a unique national experience and originality, expanded the scope of its figurative world.

Russian lacquer painting is a unique phenomenon of world artistic culture. Having absorbed the achievements of the lacquer art of the West and East, accumulated over the centuries, she enriched it with a unique national experience and originality, expanded the scope of its figurative world. Products with lacquer miniature painting ceased to have a purely utilitarian purpose, thanks to the high skill of Russian craftsmen, they became works of art, with a variety of themes, plots and images. Lacquer miniatures are not only a concentrated joy, a delight for the eyes, but also food for the mind, a consolation for the soul. It is convenient to have them with you, they do not burden the owner with their size and are delicate in the interior, do not destroy the style of large shapes, masses and colors.

The art of lacquer painting originated several millennia ago in China. During the excavation of ancient graves, lacquer items dating back to the Shan Yin era (1766-1122 BC) were found. Lacquer was used to cover household utensils, dishes and ceremonial vessels, horse harness, bows and arrows, and decorate carriages. Lacquers were written like ink, used to protect the surface of products and for decorative purposes.

From China, lacquer art spread to Korea, Japan, the countries of Indochina, India and Persia. The methods of making lacquers were largely determined by the existence of lacquer trees in these regions (in China "chi-shu", in Japan "urushi-no-ki", in Vietnam "kei-shon"). Each country developed the lacquer technique in its own way, borrowing something from its neighbors, improving their experience and bringing in its own. The Japanese, having become acquainted with Chinese lacquers, surpassed them, especially in painting with the use of gold and silver powders using the makie and nashiji techniques.

In Iran, a special lacquer was used, the component of which was sandarak, a fragrant resin of a North African coniferous tree, inferior in quality to the lacquers of China and Japan. In India, where lacquer art has been known since the 15th-16th centuries, lacquer was made from linseed and gum.

Oriental lacquers are distinguished by the highest level and culture of technology. The lacquer remains hard and flexible after drying, does not react to hot water, is odorless, resists biological degradation. Lacquer is cheap, hygienic, and can be painted, molded, molded, and cut. Varnish can be applied to any surface, flat and curly, wood, paper, fabric, leather, metal, stone.

Captivated by the beauty of unusual products, European craftsmen created workshops in the 17th century for the production of products with Chinese-style paintings. But the manufacturing technology of European lacquers is significantly different from the Eastern one, reflecting not only differences in the source materials, but also in climatic conditions, traditions, and lifestyle.

The Belgian Spa is considered the birthplace of European varnishes. The lacquer industry here quickly became the leading haberdashery industry. Boxes of sewing kits, bonbonnieres, snuff boxes, eyeglass cases, cigarette cases, boxes for tea and spices, powder boxes, jewelry boxes, toilet sets - all this was made of beech wood. Products were very popular among vacationers in the famous European resort - the waters of the Arden. Spassky lacquer art reached its peak in the 18th century, when local artists united in a special guild.

In 1726, the Count of Condé of Bourbon created a manufactory in Chantilly. It lasted until the revolution of 1789. The Martin brothers brought special fame to French varnishes. They invented a recipe that improved copal (the term "copal" refers to resins of tropical origin, characterized by special transparency and strength) varnish from Zanzibar, treating it with turpentine oil. They also had other secrets. All these craftsmen served the richest elite of the aristocracy, creating expensive pieces of furniture, tea trays, frames, glasses, cups, watch cases and other luxury items. Stylistically, these things were mostly imitations of oriental lacquers.

The heyday of German varnishes is associated with the name of Johann Heinrich Stobwasser (1740-1829). His manufactory in Braunschweig was aimed at customers from the broad bourgeois strata. It was preceded by the lacquer workshop of Johann Christoph Lezier (d. 1730), known since 1717. In addition to furniture, Lezier made trays, caskets, stationery, brushes, and small utensils. There was a great influence of English designs in his products. The Stobwasser manufactory produced furniture (tables, chests of drawers, writing cabinets), trays, decorative plates, caskets, caskets for various purposes, snuff boxes, sticks with knobs. Especially large items were also made to order - carriages for solemn departures of the Prussian court. Small objects were painted mainly with landscape paintings by Dutch masters, marine scenes, romantic portraits, ornamental motifs, and erotic scenes.

In Russia, a constant interest in varnishes began to appear from the time of Peter the Great. But even under Aleksey Mikhailovich (1629-1676), individual chambers of the Kolomna Palace near Moscow were decorated in the Chinese style. Thanks to trade contacts with China, lacquered wooden trays, screens, and fans appeared. In 1721, one of the offices of Peter I in the Peterhof Monplaisir Palace was decorated with 94 lacquer panels, executed by Russian masters Ivan Tikhonov and Perfily Fedorov with comrades in oriental style"under China" under the direction of the Dutch artist Hendrik van Brumkorst, who worked in Russia until 1744. Having familiarized himself with large European manufactories, Peter I bought a batch of furniture with lacquer painting and invited foreign masters of the "lacquer business" to work in Russia. Such well-known masters as Noel Mireal, Carl Andreas Tramblin, Francis and Schwartz Konrad, Torin and others worked in Russia at different times. Pupils were sent abroad to study lacquer work, and after the Academy of Arts was founded in 1757, lacquer work was taught in its classes. In the time of Peter the Great, there was a "Lakirny Yard", which was located in the so-called Italian House of Catherine I on the banks of the Fontanka. There were workshops and warehouses. In 1761, Fyodor Vlasov painted the palace of Peter III in Oranienbaum, which is a unique monument of art.

Later in Russia, many lacquer industries arose: in St. Petersburg and its environs - the enterprises of M. Bool (who invited French masters to establish production), I. Kin, Friedrich and John Pets, D. Orlovskaya, A. Ek, Volenschneider, J. Labutin, Tareva. Near St. Petersburg, at the factory of K. Tiepon, tin and paper lacquered products were produced. In Moscow and the Moscow region, the most famous were the factories of the Lukutins and A.I. Austen, the Vishnyakovs, N. Nazhevshchikov, and the Sorokin brothers. There were many small provincial workshops: Shimer, Danilevich, in Berdichev - Gubarev (his hired worker Christian Flach later opened a factory in Moscow and produced 1450 snuff boxes a year), O.E. Burbyshev and others. All of them, as a rule, were similar to similar European enterprises and soon closed, with the exception of Lukutinskiy and Vishnyakovskiy.

The Lukutinsk manufactory, founded at the end of the 18th century by the merchant P.I. Korobov (died in 1819) in the village of Danilkovo near Moscow (adjacent to Fedoskino and subsequently merged with it), and the Vishnyakov workshops had a special fate. P.I. Korobov produced lacquered visors for headdresses of the Russian army. Snuffboxes are also being produced at his factory. Initially, they were not signed, engravings were pasted on them and varnished. In 1818 the factory passed to Korobov's daughter, and in 1824 to his son-in-law P.V. Lukutin (1784-1863). Pyotr Lukutin changed the forms and subjects of the lacquer miniature, focusing on the taste of the Russian consumer. However, the Lukutin masters continued to study the subtleties of miniature writing on Western models.

Under Pyotr Lukutin and his son Alexander (1819-1888), Lukutin's varnishes won wide recognition and fame. Russian troikas so beloved by the public, scenes of tea drinking, Ukrainian plots, and a historical theme appeared. Improved the lacquering process. Lukutin's lacquers were of high quality, exceptionally clear and perfectly polished. This was achieved by the fact that the varnishes underwent a long-term, for 7-8 years, "review" in the sun. The semi-finished product was made of rag cardboard, which gave it even greater strength. The hinges on the products were gilded. There are two methods of writing: "through" and "case". "In a through" - this is a glazing letter in transparent layers on metal linings, mother-of-pearl. "Corpus" writing was executed with dense strokes, the subtlety of writing and drawing was brought to virtuosity. As a rule, both methods were used in miniature. Particular attention was paid to artistic and decorative design. The craftsmen paint the surface of the caskets, imitating tortoise-like, ivory-like, malachite-like, birch-bark-like materials, varying the motifs of tartans. The ornaments use the technique of inlay with mother-of-pearl and metal. A special method of decorating caskets with filigree is created - a pattern made from the smallest gold and silver plates. A thin engraving was used on metal linings coated with varnish, the so-called "tsirovka".

There was a drawing school at the factory, the best masters of Lukutin were sent to the Moscow Stroganov Art School. The Lukutins treated their masters well, provided them with free apartments, firewood, kerosene, plots of land for a garden, which were cultivated by Lukutin laborers on Lukutin horses. In the Lukutin barns, it was possible to take on credit, if desired, cereals, tea, sugar, butter of a higher quality than from local merchants. Old infirm masters, at their request, were placed in the Khludov almshouse, and the students used the dining room for free during the entire period of study, they were provided with clothes and shoes, paints and brushes.

Under Alexander Lukutin, there was no store selling products, he kept the goods at home, retailed himself. Under the last Lukutin, Nikolai (1852-1902), a store was opened. Nikolai Lukutin married a very rich bride, and the question of the factory's income did not bother him. The Lukutin case was just a hobby for him. Two years after the death of Nikolai Lukutin, in 1904, the factory was closed. The daughter of the last Lukutin sold a unique long-term collection of the best Lukutin masters, which taught more than one generation of artists, and the remaining goods to unknown people abroad. Many craftsmen changed their profession after the factory closed, some of them went to the Vishnyakovs.

The Vishnyakov clan, serfs of Count Sheremetev, active and enterprising peasants, created several workshops in villages near Moscow. In 1780, in the village of Zhostovo, Philip Nikitich Vishnyakov opened a workshop for the production of lacquerware, and then moved to Moscow. His factory lasted until 1840. His workshop was subsequently successfully led by his son Osip (1825-1888), and then by his uncles Peter and Vasily. Philip's brother, Taras, remained in Zhostovo. In the village of Sorokino, a workshop was opened by Alexei Vishnyakov together with Zakhar Petrov and E.F. Belyaev (1830-1885), and Yegor and Vasily Vishnyakov with Kirila Pansky in the village of Ostashkovo. Stepan Filishkov's workshop was organized in the village of Novoseltsevo. In 1830, there were 8 workshops in this area, in 1876 - 20. In 1876-1888, peasants of ten villages of the Moscow province were engaged in lacquer business.

Lukutinsky and Vishnyakovsky varnishes developed in close connection with Russian realistic painting. The masters widely used the plots of Russian, however, and Western European artists, boldly processing them. Many commissioned works were carried out. The range of products was inexhaustible: from popular matchboxes of various shapes, salt shakers, tea caddies - to blotters, travel cellars and individual household items, such as umbrella and walking stick handles, folders for restaurant menus, covers for photographic albums, boxes for storing cigars and boxes for documents and other products. All of them were decorated with paintings - from those executed at the highest level by leading masters to mass production intended for the general public.

In 1910, part of the Lukutin and Vishnyakov masters decided to create their own artel. They turned to the Sergei Timofeevich Morozov Foundation, which issued working capital. A rural teacher from Fedoskino, Lyubov Dmitrievna Derzhavina, rendered great assistance in preparing the documentation. Georgy Petrovich Petrov, head of the provincial instructor department of the zemstvo, carefully examined the readiness and capabilities of the artists, and as a result, they were given 500,000 rubles. A plot was also allocated for the construction of a workshop in the village of Semenishchevo. On October 11, 1910, the masters began work in the new building. The artel was called the Fedoskino Labor Artel, it consisted of 10 people: Sergey Nikolayevich Kuznetsov, Alexei Fedorovich Mishaninov, Vasily Petrovich Mitusov, Sergey Matveevich Borodkin, Vasily Sergeevich Borodkin, Semyon Matveevich Matveev, Alexei Alekseevich Kruglikov, Alexei Afanasyevich Golovchenkov, Alexei Spiridonovich and Cainova and Ivan Petrovich Lavrov. S.N. Kuznetsov was elected headman. The purchase of the remnants of the Lukutinsk semi-finished product and inventory opened up the possibility for artel workers in the very first months to produce products that are not inferior in quality to Lukutinskaya. The handicraft museum gave excellent recommendations for the products of the artel to trading companies. Orders started coming in. S.T.Morozov, seeing the good arrangement of the case in the artel, gave her 2 shares of 500 rubles each in the people's bank, where they could always get a loan of 1000 rubles, in addition, the artel workers created a mutual assistance fund. Yes, and the Zemstvo supported, highly appreciating the results and quality of work of artel workers. In 1912, the artel building burned down, but thanks to insurance, it was quickly rebuilt. The trouble did not break the artists, they set to work with even greater enthusiasm. Orders came from all over Russia, especially from St. Petersburg and from abroad.

During the civil war of 1918-1920, the artel continued to work, although only 5 people remained there, the rest were at the front. Under the conditions of the war, it was impossible to sell products either in the country or abroad. Only selfless love for one's art helped the artel to survive. In 1923, at the first All-Russian Agricultural and Handicraft-Industrial Exhibition, the Fedoskino artel was awarded a diploma of the first degree, and for maintaining its production during the years of the revolution and civil war, a diploma of gratitude. The great success at this exhibition inspired the artists. True, with the sale there were still great difficulties. Fedoskino varnishes were not inferior to Japanese ones, but the latter were three to five times cheaper. In 1925-1926, the cost of the product consisted of 93% of the cost of labor and 7% of the cost of materials, 60% went to the salary of the painter. This clearly shows how expensive labor was valued. In order to reduce the cost of it, the artel began to accept not only mediocre Lukutin masters, but also masters from other workshops - of a lower level. New samples for miniatures were created by the artists of the Handicraft Museum based on the processing of works by already Soviet artists. Not mastering the technique of Fedoskino writing, the artists of the Handicraft Museum failed to use the rich decorative possibilities lurking in it. Executed rather primitively, these miniatures are flat and reminiscent of lubok icons pasted on boxes. If it were not for the inscriptions, it would be impossible to guess who and what they depict, the art form in which the author clothed his works was so archaic. Other samples created by these artists without knowledge and observance of the technical methods of Fedoskino painting were even less suited to their decorative purpose. Rough writing, random compositions did not fit with the chamber form. Banal miniatures with mannered awnings, pierrots and arapchats, stylized as different kinds artistic painting did not correspond to the tradition of the Fedoskino miniature. And the saddest thing is that the age-old experience of Russian miniatures was ignored, imposing hastily invented and somehow recruited from various sources Topics. But there were also acceptable experiments, for example, the use of motifs from porcelain painting, similar in nature to miniature painting, or various variations of the famous popular popular image of the spinner.

At the same time, Eastern and Western methods of using mother-of-pearl in inlays were widely mastered in Fedoskino varnishes. Mother-of-pearl is cut in various places of the object, obeying the intended composition, and the painting, executed with light glazes, makes it sound according to the general plan: a light glare on melted snow, the play of sunlight in the clouds and on the water surface, on the roofs of houses and domes of churches will emphasize the richness of the dress - brocade, silk, velvet. With the help of mother-of-pearl, an object is modeled, and, as a material of special decorative qualities, it is included in the overall pictorial structure of the image.

In addition to Fedoskino, there are currently three centers for the art of miniature lacquer painting in Russia: Palekh, Mstera and Kholuy. They went through a different path of development. Before the revolution of 1917, these were large icon-painting crafts, the masters of which created icon-painting workshops throughout the country: in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod, Saratov. They painted churches in Russia and embassy churches abroad. Before the revolution, Mstyora, Palekh, Kholuy were part of the Vladimir province, in Soviet times, according to the new administrative division, Palekh and Kholuy ended up in the Ivanovo region, and Mstyora - in the Vladimir region. All these centers are known as ancient centers of icon painting. They were engaged not only in the art of small forms, but also in murals, in the restoration of old churches.

The occupation of icon painting, most likely, came from the monasteries. The most ancient center of the craft was Kholui, as the patrimony of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra and the Spaso-Evfimiev Monastery. The mention of Kholui occurs in 1543 in connection with a letter to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery on the exemption from duties of the Starodub and Kirzhach salt pans. The first settlement was called "New Salts of Kholuy"2. The Kholuy saltworks belonged to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. This connection with the largest cultural center had a beneficial effect on Kholui. The most intelligent children were selected here for training in icon painting and sent to the monastery. So, in 1735, by order of Archimandrite of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra Athanasius, 10 peasant children aged 12 to 15 years old were recruited in the Troitsko-Kholuyskaya Sloboda, "... sharp and reliable for the concept of icon-painting art, trained to read and write and, give them rest, food and clothing in the Lavra, to teach painting to Hieromonk Pavel"3.

In 1882, the Alexander Nevsky Brotherhood, founded in Vladimir, opened drawing classes in Kholui, later transformed into an icon painting and drawing school. A graduate of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts N.N. Kharlamov (1863-1935) was sent there to guide and teach. The activities of the school proved to be fruitful. Its graduates were engaged in church painting and icon painting. Since 1902, a graduate of the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts, E.A. Zarin, has also been the head and teacher of the school. The school teaches not only icon painting, but also widely introduces academic painting, expands acquaintance with world art.

The first mention of Mstyora in the scribe books of the Epiphany Pogost dates back to 1628. This is an ancient patrimony of the Romodanovsky princes, who later came close to the court of Tsar Peter I. Icon painting in the 17th century in the Epiphany Monastery spread to the entire male population of the settlement, becoming its main business.

Palekh is also an old village. The local church chronicle mentions that Palekh originally belonged to the Paletsky princes from the family of the Starodubsky princes. The Palets princes played a prominent role in the history of the Russian state. The daughter of Dmitry Paletsky was married to Ivan the Terrible's brother Yuri, and after her death, Palekh went to the son of Ivan IV, and then to the treasury. In the 17th century, Palekh was assigned to Ivan Buturlin, who came from an ancient family, whose ancestor was in the service of Alexander Nevsky.

All centers followed a single Orthodox tradition in icon painting, but at the same time each had its own characteristics: the Msteryaks were guided mainly by the Old Believer layers of different regions of Russia, the kholuyans, who were inclined towards greater freedom, were close to the realistic Russian tradition - to the extent that it was allowed in an icon; paleshans are more canonical.

A decisive role in the future fate of these three centers was played by Ivan Golikov (1886/87-1937). Without Golikov, there would be no new art not only in Palekh, but also in Kholuy and Mstyora. A sensitive perception of art, dissatisfaction with the routine that dominated the icon at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, persistent search for the application of his talent, study in various workshops and in the famous St. revolution stood before all icon painters. At that time, Golikov successfully worked in various cities of Russia as a theater decorator. His scenery was a great success, after the performance the artist was called to bow. Golikov's brother-in-law, the former Moscow icon painter A.A. Glazunov, invited him to the Handicraft Museum, where Lukutin's caskets were exhibited, and persuaded him to try his hand at miniature painting. And it was in this field that Golikov's remarkable talent was revealed.

Already the first miniatures of Golikov stunned specialists with their unusualness. It became clear to many that a new art was being born. The genius of the master helped the ancient art to be revived in a new look. Gorgeous miniatures by Golikov encouraged other former icon painters to try their hand at lacquer painting. They were joined by A.V. Kotukhin (1886-1961), I.P. Vakurov (1885-1968), I.V. Markichev (1883-1955). In 1923, they participated in the All-Russian Art and Industrial Exhibition in Moscow and received a diploma of the 1st degree. This gave confidence in new beginnings to Palekh painters. But there were too many problems. One of them was the creation of its own production of papier-mâché.

At this time, I.I. Golikov was offered a teaching position at the Stieglitz School, but at the request of his comrades, he returned to Palekh, where on December 5, 1924 they organized the Artel of Ancient Painting. Its founders were: I.I. Golikov, I.M. Bakanov (1870-1936), I.I. Zubkov (1883-1938) and A.I. Zubkov (1885-1938), I.V. Markichev, A.V. and V.V. Kotukhina (1897-1957). The first chairman of the artel was A.V. Kotukhin, who played a huge role in creating their own papier-mâché for the Paleshans. In 1925 A.I.Vatagin (1881-1947), G.M.Bakanov (1881-1928), D.N.Butorin (1891-1960), and in 1926 - P.I.Vakurov joined the artel. All of them were painters of the highest class, which determined the success of the whole business.

From the very beginning, the artel took care of teaching the artists the basics of the new art. The first student of the artel in 1926 was P.D. Bazhenov (1904-1941), endowed with a brilliant talent. Officially, apprenticeship was introduced into artels in 1928 with the great support of Ya.S. Ganetsky, known for his risky financial enterprises. Ganetsky, a member of the collegium of the People's Commissariat of Foreign Trade, rendered great assistance in the sale of Palekh works, in the construction of new workshops, and helped free artists from participating in agricultural work. Moreover, agricultural machinery was bought for the collective farm with the money received from the sale of their products.

The range of products painted in Palekh was very wide: brooches, barrels, jars, trunks, beads, notebooks, stampers, paper knives, cigarette boxes, snuff boxes, cigarette cases, powder boxes, records, eyeglass cases, tea caddies, glove boxes, writing instruments, Easter eggs, boxes.

On the initiative and advice of A.M. Gorky, a room was created at the Artel of Ancient Painting to store the best works, which were to form the basis of the future museum. The museum was opened to visitors on March 13, 1935. Its first exposition occupied four rooms. With the help of A.M. Gorky, an excellent library was created and opened.

The participation of Palekh artists at international exhibitions in Venice in 1924 and in Paris in 1925 caused a sensation. They receive high appeals and awards, tempting offers come - to open a school of lacquer miniatures in Italy. The greatest art historian A.V. Bakushinsky wrote at that time that Palekh was the only place in the world where the marvelous fairy tale of that time of Russian culture was still alive, when its art was of world importance. Palekh received great support from A.M. Gorky, who, as a teenager, worked in the workshop of Palekh artists in Nizhny Novgorod. The help of a prominent writer saved the Paleshan people from many troubles and helped them to receive orders. The position of the masters was difficult. Former colleagues in the craft considered them apostates, traitors to the faith. The new government could not forgive them for their past occupation with icon painting. But since the sale of their products gave the young state the currency that was so necessary, they were openly told, they say, while you live. I.I. Golikov said that Paleshans are scolded with words worse than obscene ones. But after the death of M. Gorky, persecution began on the Paleshans. The chairman of the artel, A.I. Zubkov, was arrested, who died in the camps, charged under an article on espionage. The successes of the Paleshians at international exhibitions aroused great interest among major world cultural figures, and they were brought to Palekh, which later turned out to be dangerous contacts for which they were punished.

In the 1920s, the formation of the Palekh style of lacquer miniatures was based not only on centuries-old art system ancient Russian painting, but also on the experience of all world art.

In the lacquer miniature, the Paleshians used tempera paint, preserved thanks to Russian icon painting, "this is the main wealth of Palekh and its artistic capital, which was carefully guarded as a living tradition from generation to generation, from the roots of Byzantium and ancient culture"4. In Western Europe, tempera paints were painted until the 16th century. The reception of Palekh writing consists in strictly sequential application of paint on a lacquer surface. First, the artists write with whitewash, performing the entire composition with them. Already at this stage, the basis for the color scheme of the miniature is laid. In those places where there will be light colors, the white is put thicker, in several layers. Then proceed to the disclosure of color. This stage is called unfolding. The next step is painting. Draw on the roof dark tone all the contours and details, and then reveal the shadow and light parts of the composition, this process is called fusion among the Paleshans. The last stage is the final finishing with paints of the volumes of the depicted objects. The painting ends with writing (space) in gold, concentrating light. Emotional expressiveness is achieved not only by means of composition and color, but also by a certain way of applying colors. Painting with floats (glazing) consists in multi-layer writing with transparent strokes, when the lower layers of painting shine through the upper ones, giving airiness and luminosity to the composition. This is a complex technique that takes years to master, sometimes up to 10 years, and it is not given to everyone. A special role in the Palekh miniature is played by the writing in gold of all volumes at the last stage. Gold is not only a key element, but also part of the artistic worldview in Palekh art. It is inextricably linked with the symbol of light, which has great historical traditions, coming from medieval ideas about the two principles of life - light and dark. In Christian symbolism, light acquires a special aesthetic meaning, becoming a prototype of Divine grace. The material carrier of this light is gold, which symbolizes it, is the materialized Divine clarity.

The example of Palekh helped the former icon painters of Mstyora and Kholuy try their hand at the new art. Even earlier than the Paleshians, the Msterians were looking for ways to apply their craft in new conditions. The disunited handicraftsmen of Mstera united in the trade union of art workers - RABIS. The first samples were the painting of wooden products and tin trays. On July 23, 1923, the artel "Old Russian Painting" was created in Mstyora. It consisted of eleven people. They worked on wooden "linen" brought from the city of Semyonov. They painted boxes, caskets, caskets, salt shakers, matryoshka dolls and more. In 1924, they began to master painting with oil paints on wall rugs on canvas. In 1925, there were already thirty people in the artel, in 1928 - 60. But the low quality of the products made it difficult to exist. Some of the former icon painters worked at the local oilcloth factory and the Metalloshtamp plant. It was hard to find your way. The leading art critics A.V.Bakushinsky and V.M.Vasilenko rendered great assistance in developing their own style. They suggested that it is necessary to go from the features of the Mstyora icon painting, with its unusual landscape backgrounds. Western European painting, in particular Dutch, with its fading distances, Persian miniature with its carpet ornamentation, influenced the Mstyora lacquer miniature. The peculiarity of the Mstyora style in lacquer painting and its content were influenced by the Russian popular print. Before the revolution, there was a center in Mstyora for the production of popular prints, the production of which was undertaken by the famous archaeologist I.A. Golyshev (1838-1896) - an ardent collector of everything related to folk life, a connoisseur of antiquity. He was a serf of Count Panin, who owned Mstera. N.A. Nekrasov specially came to him in Mstera about the release of his works in the series "Red Books" and their distribution among the people through the ofenei. Lubok pictures published by Golyshev were an expanded booklet with illustrations, accompanied by lengthy texts of a moralizing nature and with humor. Pictures were printed on a printing stone and painted by women and teenagers of Mstera. The brilliant experience of Palekh encouraged the Msterians to stubbornly go towards the intended goal. On June 22, 1931, the artel "Proletarian Art" was created in Mstera to master miniature lacquer painting. Its founders were five masters: N.P. Klykov (1861-1944), A.I. Bryagin (1888-1948), E.V. Yurin (1898-1983), I.A. Serebryakov (1888-1967), V.I.Savin (1880-1957). Serebryakov and Yurin were sent to Moscow for courses to learn papier-mâché painting techniques.

After the revolution, the lackeys painfully searched for the use of their craft, and later than Palekh and Mstyora, they created an artel of miniature lacquer painting. It took place in 1934, and its founders were S.A. Mokin (1891-1945), K.V. Kosterin (1899-1985), D.M. Dobrynin (?) and V.D. Puzanov-Molev (1892 -1961). All of them graduated from the icon painting and drawing school, they were talented and educated artists with vast experience. And VD Puzanov-Molev graduated in 1912 from the Stroganov Art School in Moscow. The path to the lacquer miniature was more difficult for the kholuyans. The brilliant debut of Palekh, and then the success of Mstera, pushed them to imitate them. In addition, such prominent art historians as A.V. Bakushinsky and V.M. Vasilenko were soon repressed and the kholuyans were deprived of the professional assistance that they had provided to their colleagues in Palekh and Mstyora. The style of the Kholuy miniature developed gradually over several decades. The landscape of Central Russian nature serves as a backdrop against which historical events unfold, folklore and genre scenes of their miniatures. An interesting trend in the architectural landscape was formed in Kholui, represented by the work of N.N. Denisov (born in 1929), B.I. Kiselev (born in 1928), V.N. Sedov (born in 1952 ), V. Teplov (born in 1955), in a variety of creative interpretations.

The artists of Palekh, Mstyora and Kholuy painted and now paint not only miniatures, but also large panels for the decoration of secular buildings and institutions, they were and are engaged in book design and theater decoration, painting furniture and porcelain, decorating premium metal cups, collaborating with jewelers, creating original works of art.

Now in these three former icon-painting centers - Palekh, Kholui and Mstyora - artists are increasingly turning to icon painting.

At the same time, after the changes of the 1990s, when the old political and economic system collapsed, numerous artists of the four major crafts, who, under the conditions of the socialist structure of society, were guaranteed a certain stable income, a stable domestic market, free education and professional growth, found themselves in a dramatic situation. Having received complete freedom to write what and how you want, they completely lost the opportunity to sell their products on the domestic market. Not only are there no state orders, which were used by museums and art funds in Russia and the USSR, today it is difficult to sell inexpensive works that were previously successfully sold through shops. The state abstained from any participation in the fate of the unique centers of Russian art, and the total impoverishment of the population made the works of lacquer miniature artists inaccessible to it.

To some extent, the situation is saved only by the fact that over the years of its existence, Russian lacquer miniatures have acquired a large international market. This was facilitated not only by the high quality of performance, orientation to various social strata, a variety of subjects, possession of ornamental delights drawn from Western European and Eastern varnishes, originality, but also the constant development of new forms - both products and artistic means of expression, a sensitive connection with time. , serious professional training of masters. This allows us to hope that the domestic lacquer miniature will be able to withstand the difficult trials that have fallen to its lot.

LUCKY PAINTING

Picturesque varnishes are 30% solutions of resins in pinene, with the exception of copal varnish, where copal resin is dissolved in linseed oil.

The following types of varnishes are produced, used as additives to oil paints: mastic, dammar, pistachio, acrylic-pistachio and copal.

Mastic varnish - 30% mastic resin solution in pinene. Mastic lacquer can serve not only as an additive to paints, but also as a rubbing of intermediate layers in layer-by-layer painting, replacing retouching lacquer in this. Apply mastic varnish and as a cover for oil and tempera painting.

Dammar varnish - A 30% solution of dammar resin in pinene with the addition of ethyl alcohol. Dammar varnish is used as an additive to paints and as a topcoat. During storage, it sometimes loses transparency, but, when dried, when the pinene evaporates, the varnish film becomes transparent. Pinene is used to dilute the varnish. When aging, dammar varnish turns yellow less than mastic varnish.

Copal varnish - is an "alloy" of copal resin and refined linseed oil, diluted with pinene. Dark varnish. The approximate composition of the varnish (in m.h.): Copal - 20, oils - 40, pinene - 40. The varnish is used as an additive to paints. The dried film of copal varnish is insoluble in organic solvents.

In addition to these varnishes, the following are produced: balsam-oil, cedar, balsamic-penta-oil and fir.

COATING LACQUES

Coating varnishes are used for coating, oil and tempera painting

Pistachio varnish is a solution of pistachio resin (23%) in pinene with a slight addition of white spirit (thinners No. 2) and butyl alcohol. The advantage of pistachio varnish is the almost complete colorlessness of the varnish film, which is highly elastic. The drying speed of pistachio lacquer is much lower than that of other top lacquers.

Acrylic-pistachio varnish is a synthetic polybutyl methacrylic resin with the addition of a small amount of pistachio resin. The resins are dissolved in pinene, to which about two percent butyl alcohol is added. The film of acrylic-pistachio varnish is almost colorless, has great elasticity and is superior in strength to films of mastic and dammar varnishes. Drying occurs more slowly than mastic varnish.

retouch varnish It is used to prevent sagging in multi-layer oil painting, as well as to enhance the adhesion of paint layers. Lacquer can be applied with a brush or swab. The varnish consists of 1 part mastic varnish and 1 part acrylic-pistachio varnish, dissolved in 8-10 parts of aviation gasoline.

COATING PICTURES WITH VARNISH

Lacquering oil or tempera paintings is extremely important. The tones of colors in a painting covered with varnish acquire intensity, which is especially characteristic of tempera paints, but at the same time, the varnish somewhat darkens the tempera paints. The paint layer, covered with varnish, acquires a pleasant sheen, at the same time the picture is perceived more clearly, small pictorial details, often invisible in matte painting, are highlighted and emphasized.

The lacquer film plays not only a purely optical role, but also protects the paint layer from the action of aggressive reagents in the air. Such aggressive reagents include hydrogen sulfide and sulphurous gases, which cause a sharp darkening of some paints.

Cover the picture with varnish not earlier than one year from the date of completion of the work. During all this time, the painting must be protected from dust, pollution, tobacco smoke, etc.

To cover the painting, one of the top coats is used: acrylic-pistachio, mastic or dammar.

Acrylic-pistachio is considered the best top coat. This varnish has a special transparency, high elasticity and does not lose its properties over time.

The applied varnish must be fresh, no more than three months can pass from the moment of release, which is checked by the composter on the label.

Before applying varnish - the picture must be cleaned of dust and dried.
To apply varnish, wide bristle flute brushes are used, while the width of the flute is selected depending on the size of the picture. For a medium-sized painting, a flute is usually used, the stripe width of which is at least 100 mm, and for a small-sized painting - a width of 45-50 mm. The flute brush you choose should have short but uncut bristles. The thicker the varnish, the shorter the bristles of the flute should be, so that it "tightens" the varnish, that is, it makes it possible to apply it in a fairly thin layer.

In addition to the flute brush, varnish is sometimes applied with a nylon swab or even with just a hand.

For better polishing of the varnish, it should be applied in a heated form, for which a water bath is used with a water temperature not exceeding 40 °.

Sometimes the picture is heated with a reflector, also to a temperature not exceeding 40°, but this method does not give an even distribution of heat over the painting layer, and the heat of the reflector is difficult to control.

To reduce the gloss of a lacquer coating that causes glare, the lacquer is diluted with fresh pinene (thinner - No. 4) in a ratio of 1: 1. The ratio between the lacquer and thinner can be changed depending on the season, more thinner is taken in cold weather.

To make the varnish dry more slowly during work, white spirit is added to it (thinner - No. 2), this makes it possible to slowly apply varnish to the picture, but white spirit has a greater permeability than pinene, and can cause so-called varnish failures, which goes through microcracks into the depths of the picturesque layer, forming muddy spots.

When applying varnish, the picture is placed on the table, and large paintings are varnished on the easel.

Having installed the light source on the right side, they begin to varnish the picture. Having typed a small amount of varnish on the brush, smoothly, with wide movements, lead the flute in one direction, driving off the varnish. When the flute moves quickly, the brush captures air and bubbles can form on the varnish film. The direction of the flute should be parallel to the underside of the painting.

After applying the lacquer, it is polished with an already dry flute over the half-moist lacquer. Polishing is carried out until the flute begins to stick and linger on the varnish.

Both application and polishing are carried out in one direction, without returning to the already dried-out places of the picture.

After applying the varnish, the gloss of the picture should be moderate.

With increased gloss of the varnish film, which is associated with excessive application of varnish, this deficiency is corrected by removing part of the varnish film; To remove excess varnish, use a flute brush well dipped in pinene. Blurring of the film is carried out with the same brush movements as in the case of coating. The varnish from the brush is periodically squeezed out.

When varnishing large paintings, as indicated, they are set on an easel and ensure that there are no streaks in the process of work. Large paintings are often varnished, gradually breaking the entire area into separate sections.

Having finished applying the varnish, after 10-15 minutes the painting is set obliquely, with a picturesque layer against the wall, in order to protect the wet varnish film from dust settling from the air during the varnish drying process.

At the same time, the varnished picture should be protected from the action of air humidity and low temperatures.

Russian artistic varnishes are one of the remarkable phenomena of the art of artistic crafts in Russia.

On the territory of the RSFSR, six centers for the production of artistic varnishes are most famous: Fedoskino, Palekh, Mstera, Kholuy - products with miniature painting and Zhostovo, Nizhny Tagil - varnished trays with paintings.

In Europe, oriental artistic varnishes have become known since the 16th century. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. in Italy, France, England and Germany, their own production of lacquer products is developing. In Russia, the art of lacquer painting originated in the 18th century. So, all the work on the design of the "lacquer cabinet" in the country palace of Peter I was carried out by Russian "lacquer works" masters. From the 18th century Painted lacquered boxes and cabinets have come down to us. In the second half of the XVIII century. lacquer painting on metal appears in Russia (Nizhny Tagil).

At the end of the XVIII century. there is a craft of artistic varnishes in the village. Danilkovo near Moscow, which later merged with the neighboring village of Fedoskino. The founder of the Fedoskino trade was the merchant P.I. lkove a small factory for the production of products from papier-mâché. The experience of foreigners was soon mastered and developed by local craftsmen. In 1818-1819. the factory passed to Korobov's son-in-law P. V. Lukutin. Under him and his son A.P. Lukutin in the 30-60s of the 19th century, when the production of lacquer products ceased everywhere in Western Europe, Russian lacquers gained worldwide fame and were repeatedly awarded honorary diplomas and medals at international exhibitions and fairs.

For the manufacture of papier-mâché, ordinary cardboard is used, narrow strips of which are smeared with flour or starch paste, wound in several layers (from 8 or more) onto special blanks in the shape of a future box, pressed and dried for 2-3 days. Then the blanks are impregnated with linseed oil and hardened for 12 days in special drying cabinets. The finished papier-mâché takes on the characteristic dark brown color and strength of the wood. Products made from it are primed in 3 layers (primers of a special composition), and each layer is dried and polished separately, and covered with two layers of black varnish. The inner surface of the product is usually painted with red paint (cinnabar), on top of which two layers of light oil varnish are applied. The perfection of form and the technical quality of the finish of Lukutin's products were so high that things were beautiful and elegant even before the painter's hand touched them. The artist decorates the product with the finest colorful miniature painting (on a slightly brushed surface). The painting is covered with several layers of colorless varnish and polished to a mirror finish. Along with miniature painting, other, more simple ways decorations: "plaid" (imitation of a pattern of Scottish fabric), "tortoiseshell" (tortoiseshell pattern), filigree (type-setting pattern of metal elements on wet varnish). Another technique for decorating Fedoskino products is called “tsirovka”; it lies in the fact that the radial pattern is engraved on dry black varnish to the lining of a thin sheet of metal (silver, cupronickel or tin).

Fedoskin's miniaturists paint with oil paints. They have developed their own special techniques: "writing in dense" and "writing in a through way." They paint in dense oil on bleaching ground in three or four layers, and each layer of painting (“painting” ^ “repainting”, “glazing”, “glare”) is dried and covered with transparent varnish: such a multi-layered painting gives depth to Fedoskino painting and color saturation. By writing in a dense way, miniature portraits are mainly created.

The letter in a through way is done with transparent glazing paints on gold leaf, mother-of-pearl or aluminum powder. At the same time, the colors seem to light up from the inside with multi-colored lights. Particularly noble color effects are provided by the mother-of-pearl lining, painting on which creates delicate color shades that can convey the brilliance of a sunbeam, play of the color of the sea wave.

The range of products of the Lukutin factory was unusually wide - album plates, blotters, boxes for sweets, "drums for tea and tobacco", "barrels", mother-of-pearl and papier-mâché cufflinks, needle cases, piggy banks, napkin rings, eyeglass cases, cigarette cases, trays , powder boxes, pencil cases, cigarette boxes, snuff boxes, etc.

Fedoskino masters had their favorite subjects, mostly scenes from folk life. Using lithographed drawings and engravings as samples, and later works of modern easel painting, the Fedoskino workers significantly reworked the originals, subordinating the composition and color of the pictorial image to the artistic solution of the whole thing as a whole, taking into account its shape and design.

An example of a creative approach to the originals are the famous Fedoskino Troikas (see color incl. 18). They are based on lithographed drawings by the artist A. O. Orlovsky (“Tsar's Courier”, “Post Troika”) and other artists. Miniaturists, leaving the overall composition of lithographs or paintings, each time made changes to the images of the characters, to the interpretation of the landscape.

In the middle of the XIX century. the main characteristic features of the figurative language of Fedoskino art are formed. Fedoskino painting is realistic. Images of a person, animals, plants retain the real proportions of shapes, color, and have volume. Credibility in the depiction of nature was combined with the subordination of painting to the decorative tasks of the general artistic solution of the subject, requiring a certain convention.

In 1904, after the death of the last Lukutin, the factory was closed, but on its basis in 1910 a group of former Lukutin masters organized the Fedoskino artel of painters. Thus, the artistic tradition of Russian lacquer miniatures was not interrupted. After the victory of the October Revolution, the Fedoskino miniature

received further development. Many Fedoskino miniaturists stop relying on other people's originals and create their own works. The first attempts at such independent creativity were carried out in the 30s by A. A. Kruglikov, I. S. Semenov and other craftsmen.

After the end of the Great Patriotic War, when young artists returned from the army, creative searches resumed.

Talented craftsmen worked in the field in the 1950s and 1970s. One of Fedoskin's leading miniature painters is the Honored Artist of the RSFSR, laureate of the State Prize of the RSFSR. I. E. Repina M. S. Chizhov, who creates original works of miniature art on the themes of collective farm life: “The Russian Winter Festival in Fedoskino” (6.1), “Collectivization”. Honored Artist of the RSFSR M. G. Pashinin is a master of miniature portraits, everyday and fairy-tale genres: “A. S. Pushkin on the Neva”, “Dance”, “Stone Flower”, “Snow Maiden” (6.2).

A great contribution to contemporary Fedoskino art was the landscape miniatures of the Honored Artist of the RSFSR, laureate of the State Prize of the RSFSR. I. E. Repina I. I. Strakhova. His works are devoted to the surrounding nature - rivers with soft grassy banks, wooden bridges, with figures of rural children. Masterfully mastering the technique of writing through, the artist skillfully combines the color of paints with the color of silver and gold. Strakhov's works are deeply lyrical. They have the beauty of golden autumn, the freshness of the morning forest, illuminated by the golden rays of the sun, the soft sadness of a foggy day. The artist kept the thing in mind as a whole, making sure that his compositions, in terms of the generality and silhouettedness of their main elements, were in harmony with the shape of the object and the main background - black lacquer. His most famous works are "Park in Boldino", "Fedoskino" (see color incl. 19), "Landscape with a bridge".

Among the leading artists of the craft, a place of honor belongs to the Honored Artist of the RSFSR B. D. Lipitsky. Many of his works have become classic examples of Fedoskino miniature art. He created portraits of V. I. Lenin and his associates. At the same time, the creative achievements of V. D. Lipitsky are the works: “Dance”, “Birch”, “Scarlet Flower” (6.3).

In the miniature "The Scarlet Flower", executed on a box, the artist managed to create the image of a Russian girl, full of charm and lyricism. Her gaze is turned to a golden, broad-leaved bush, from which a fabulous flower was plucked. A fabulous landscape is successfully solved, against which the action unfolds. Leaving channels between the trees black color, thus creating a beautiful silhouette of the drawing, Lipitsky simultaneously solves the problem of connecting the miniature with the box, covered with black lacquer. Before us is a work of folk decorative art that combines miniature painting with the form of an object and its domestic purpose.

The traditions of Fedoskino are being developed by honored artists of the RSFSR G. I. Larishev, Yu. V. Karapaev, artists P. N. Puchkov, A. A. Tolstov, V. D. Antonov and others. figures and prominent representatives of Russian culture, create miniatures on historical and fairy tales. A large place in their work is occupied by the lyrical landscape of the Moscow region.

At the Fedoskino Order of the Badge of Honor, a factory of miniature painting, about two hundred painters work in bright workshops, there is an art vocational school and a museum of miniature painting attached to it.

During the years of Soviet power, three new centers of miniature painting on papier-mache arose and developed in the villages of Palekh, Ivanovo Region, Mstera, Vladimir Region. and Kholui, Ivanovo region. Before the revolution, icon painting existed in these villages. After the victory of October, former icon painters began to look for new ways to use their creative potential. It was necessary, relying on the original artistic traditions of ancient Russian painting, carried by local painters through the centuries, to keep up with the times, to create a fundamentally new art that would meet the interests of people building a new society. It was a very difficult task,

obgtsit former icon painters to common work to create a new socialist culture. Art critics A. V. Bakushinsky, G. V. Zhidkov, V. M. Vasilenko took a great part in the fate of Palekh, Mstera, Kholuy at the beginning of the birth of crafts. G. V. Yalovenko, M. A. Nekrasova and others worked a lot with these crafts.

Palekh became the first center of the new art. The tradition of icon painting in this village dates back to the 16th-17th centuries. The best icon-painting works of the Paleshans were characterized by narrative, in most cases the characters of their works were depicted in action. The artists carefully painted individual specific details of the environment surrounding the saints, thereby showing interest in everyday life, in real life. On their icons we see images of bizarre fairy-tale palaces, towers, decorated with carvings of village huts, images of rich smart clothes, all kinds of village utensils, necessarily beautiful and solid - everything that expresses the peasant ideal of a prosperous and happy life. The works of the Paleshans were distinguished by the special plasticity of images, the beauty of the ornament, expressing the desire of the master to make the thing joyful, life-affirming in its inner mood.

The icon painters of Palekh remained peasants and farmers. They were engaged in their craft mainly in the winter, free from field work. This connection with the land, with the peasantry left a special imprint on their work, helped them find a new path in the development of their art.

In the early 1920s, the Paleshians undertook a series of experiments on the use of the ancient Russian painting tradition in painting wooden objects. The remarkable Palekh artist I. I. Golikov was the first to use tempe-

caskets made of papier-mâché, covered with black lacquer, made according to the model of Fedoskino products. Thus, a new, Palekh craft of lacquer miniature painting was born. In 1924, the Palekh artel of ancient painting was created, later transformed into the Art and Production Workshops of the Palekh branch of the Art Fund of the RSFSR.

Unlike the Fedoskino painters, who paint their miniatures with oil paints, the Paleshians work with tempera, paint ground on egg yolk. This paint is diluted with water, so painting with it, as a rule, is built on very thin layers, successively applied to each other. At the same time, with a thick consistency of the paint composition, tempera allows you to work using the method of strokes and pasty strokes (as in pastels or in oil painting).

Instead of a primer, the paleshans use tempera thick white, which they apply to the surface of lacquer products only in those places where painting is supposed to be done. In other places, black varnish is a surface free from painting. So, already during the priming, the initial study of the volumes of figures, landscape and architectural forms takes place. The background in Palekh painting always remains the surface of black varnish free from painting. The first stage of writing is "opening up". The artist, literally pouring paint from a brush, outlines the main forms of the image. Paints, flocking, form soft color transitions and nuances, which often remain until the end of the painting.

Next comes the registration. At this stage, the main color tones are specified and the forms of the image are concretized. With a thin brush of dark paint, the artist outlines the outlines of forms, the folds of clothing, the details of the landscape and architecture. Light and dark colors set the volumes of figures and objects.

Then there are “melts” or “splashes”, i.e., broad strokes of liquid pure paints that raise the color system of the miniature and give it a certain coloristic integrity.

The painting ends with a “glare”, which is produced by the created gold: golden lines, strokes and dots convey here the fabulous play of sunlight on objects.

Miniature painting, as a rule, is framed with gold ornaments. The sides of the boxes are also decorated with ornamental patterns.

The finished painting is covered with six layers of light oil varnish, after which the surface of the product is ground and polished using the methods already known to us.

Ringing purity bright colors emerging from the depths of the black background, the golden contours of highlights and ornaments, the virtuosity of miniature writing - all this makes the works of Palekh masters close to works of jewelry art. Palekh "village-academy" is located among fields and forests, far from the noise of the city, but the creative life here flows in a tense rhythm. Here, for the first time in Soviet art, the image of the “Red Plowman” (6.4) appeared, symbolizing a new life in the village. Palekh art is characterized by an excited romanticism in the depiction of revolutionary battles, in the interpretation of themes and plots from modern reality. At the same time, a fairy tale, an epic, the history of the Russian people occupy a large place in the work of the Paleshans. In their miniatures, the real and fantasy coexist whimsically, bizarrely: real people, houses, trees, grass coexist here with conditional "slides", "chambers", "trees" and fabulous flower trees.

founders Palekh miniature Honored Artists of the RSFSR I. I. Golikov, I. M. Bakanov, People’s Artists of the RSFSR I. V. Markichev, A. V. Kotukhin, I. P. Vakurov, People’s Artist of the USSR N. M. Zinoviev, and also artists A. A. Dydykin, I. I. Zubkov and others. The work of each of them is a bright page in the Palekh art of miniature painting. I. I. Golikov in his works "Battle", "Hunt", "Troika" developed a romantic line. “The artist must show in his picture a whirlwind that sweeps away the old,” he said. Characteristic in this regard is one of his first works - the miniature "Battle" (see color incl. 20). It seems that everything is mixed up in this fiery battle, but nevertheless the composition of the miniature is extremely clear, precise and logical. It is built in a circle: warriors in bright clothes and shiny armor on rearing multi-colored horses, located along the edges of the lacquer lid of the box, in a single impetuous impulse rush to the center. The rhythm of their movement is emphasized by crossed gilded spears, indicating two opposing forces. The black lacquer background, traditional for Palekh, which contrasts sharply with the bright color “riot” of colors, contributes a lot to the emotional tension of the work.

Also remarkable are his works dedicated to Stepan Razin, illustrations for The Tale of Igor's Campaign, etc. The romanticism of I. I. Golikov is opposed by the monumental epicness of A. V. everyday topics. His works “The Tale of Tsar Saltan” (6.5), “The Firebird”, “Repair of a Tractor” and others are characterized by a special narrative, the artist, as it were, leads an entertaining story. For The Tale of Tsar Saltan, Kotukhin uses not only the top cover of the box, but also its sides. The central miniature on the lid consists of three parts. In the center is the finale of the tale: the meeting of Tsar Saltan with Prince Guidon. But right there, in the reduced images, what preceded this is shown: Prince Gvidon saw through a telescope the approaching ships of his father, bell ringing announces the arrival of Tsar Saltan on the island. A large number of the characters depicted in the miniature and the events of different times, the artist skillfully inscribes into the surface of the box. The spatial image in the foreground smoothly turns into a planar one towards the edges.

The epic structure of miniature painting is also inherent in I. M. Bakanov (“The Tale of the Golden Cockerel”, 6.6).

I. I. Zubkov is a master of the rural landscape, poetically draws the local nature with its birch groves and green fields. The works of IP Vakurov are full of symbolism. His Petrel (6.7) symbolizes the Great October Socialist Revolution. The artist depicted raging waves, bright golden lightning "strike" the ship of old Russia, which is opposed by a red worker breaking the chains of slavery. “I want to write like this,” the artist said, “so that the sea boils with the sky, so that the mountains throw a storm.” A great artistic event of the 1930s was the creation by the outstanding Palekh artist N. M. Zinoviev of a painting of a writing instrument from 11 objects on the theme “History of the Earth”. More than 400 artists currently work in Palekh. Many of them are members of the Union of Artists of the USSR. N. I. Golikov, B. M. Ermolaev, A. A. Kotukhina, G. M. Melnikov were awarded the title of People's Artist of the RSFSR; R. L. Belousov, A. V. Borunov, A. V. Kovalev, A. D. Kochupalov, B. N. Kukuliev, K. V. Kukulieva, P. F. Chalunin are Honored Artists of the RSFSR. N. M. Zinoviev, T. I. Zubkova, N. I. Golikov, A. A. Kotukhina are laureates of the State Prize of the RSFSR. I. E. Repina. Palekh has an art museum.

In 1932, in Mstera, the ancient center of Russian script writing, a new artel of miniature painting "Proletar Art" was organized. Mstera in the past (since the 18th century) was famous for its “antique letters”, i.e., imitation of ancient icons, and for its restorers. There were also "Sebyakin" icons in Mstera, which were made without strict observance of the canons. In these icons, the saints were usually depicted against the backdrop of a landscape with herds, travelers and animals. It was "Sebyakin's letters" that greatly facilitated the creative searches of the Mstera masters after the Great October Socialist Revolution. Like the Paleshans, the Mstera people paint with tempera paints papier-mâché lacquer items: boxes, boxes, caskets, needle cases, beads, etc. done in soft tones. Modeling of forms and volumes with color is typical for the Mstera miniature. The action, as a rule, takes place against the background of the Central Russian (most often local) landscape, or against the background of fabulous mountains, or a conditional architectural ensemble. Miniatures are usually bordered with a strip of openwork ornament, filled with created gold.

The themes of Mstera paintings are diverse: plots of Russian fairy tales, as well as Russian classical literature, epics and songs, the heroic and revolutionary past of the Motherland, the new life of Soviet people, ornamental compositions: either fairy-tale horsemen are chasing deer in a mountainous fantastic landscape, or Russian soldiers in golden armor fight with foreign hordes at the walls of ancient Russian cities, then our contemporaries work in the fields and factories.

An inexhaustible source of inspiration for the Msterians is the surrounding nature. The sandy bends of the navigable Klyazma, floodplain meadows with countless streams and oxbows, century-old elms along the Msterka River, washing the hill on which Mstera is located, distant villages - all this is reflected in the Mstera miniature, but is reflected in a generalized form: the plans converge, rare mighty trees form backstage around the meadows, where the heroes of the miniatures act. The founder of the Mstera miniature was the old master N. P. Klykov. According to the memoirs of the art critic V. M. Vasilenko, Klykov once showed A. V. Bakushinsky a “Sebyakin’s” icon, which depicted a landscape with a herd with unusual vividness. It was a lubok, executed in an icon-painting manner. The landscape became the main thing in Klykov's miniatures. Oaks, pines, birches, streams, small lakes in the valleys between the hills form a special, attractive world. The sky near Klykov is always very high and clear, the patterned crowns of trees stand out clearly on it, which rarely stand without blocking each other. According to their composition, Klykov's miniatures are composed of several scenes that complement each other. He, as it were, conducts a direct and sincere conversation with the viewer (“Picking fruits”, “After the whistle”, “Thunderstorm” (6.8), “Logging”, etc.). The older generation of masters includes: A. F. Kotyagin (“The Parable of Two Men”, “Finn and Ruslan”), A. I. Bryagin (“Deer Hunting”, “The Fountain of Bakhchisarai”), People's Artist of the RSFSR I. A. Fomichev (“Cossack Freemen”, “Mikula Selyaninovich”), Honored Art Worker of the RSFSR I. N. Morozov (“Battle”, “Tales of A. S. Pushkin”). The coloring of the works of these authors is light, pure and transparent. The picturesque solution is dominated by several leading tones: warm or cold. With special care and virtuosity, they work out the details - foliage, clothing patterns, etc. A special place among the Mstera miniaturists of the older generation is occupied by the People's Artist of the RSFSR E. V. Yurin - an unsurpassed master of ornamental compositions, the author of many bouquets and still lifes, cut with gold framed with fine gold ornaments (see color incl. 21).

In the 1960s, a new generation of craftsmen grew up in Mstera, relying on the best traditions of ancient Russian painting, ancient miniatures and popular popular prints. They create dozens of new works, which are characterized by increased decorativeness, originality of color solutions, and expressiveness of the silhouette. The leading masters of this generation are People's Artist of the RSFSR N. I. Shishakov and Honored Artist of the RSFSR L. A. Fomichev. Shishakov understands the surface of a lid intended for painting as a plane on which an image is composed of individual elements, like stamps on an icon. At the same time, he avoids clear boundaries between many parts of the image, achieving unity of impression from the painting. Thus, in the miniature “Mother”, the scene with the leaflets is moved outside the station building, which made it possible for the artist to simultaneously show both the strike and the gendarmes’ equestrian patrol.

L. A. Fomichev began to apply in his works some principles of the ancient Russian book miniature. This was reflected in the emphasized laconicism of artistic means: the depicted objects are given close-up, the figures of people acquire a pronounced plot, the story is supplemented by symbolic details and details. For example, in the miniature "Igor's Escape" (see color incl. 22), the sun is symbolic, illuminating Igor's path with its face, and sending the darkness of night onto the camp of the Polovtsy with its back side. The hot cinnabar of Konchak's tent emphasizes the unbridled anger of the khan, and the light tone of the landscape behind the blue streams of the river is perceived as greetings from the native land.

In the work of today's masters of Mstera painting, bold innovation in the transfer of the most diverse content is intertwined with the traditions of the artistic culture of the past. Currently, about 200 miniaturists work at the Mstera art factory "Proletarian Art". Many of them are members of the Union of Artists of the USSR. N. I. Shishakov, L. A. Fomichev - laureates of the State Prize of the RSFSR. I. E, Re

pina. The young members of the Union of Artists of the USSR are the talented masters P. I. Sosnin, V. F. Nekosov, V. K. Moshkovich, V. N. Molodkin, and others. There is an art museum and an art vocational school in Mstera.

Kholuy is the youngest of the lacquer crafts. In the past, Kholuy art differed from Palekh and Mstera art in its predominantly folk, almost cheap popular print icons, which were distributed among the peasantry. Kholuy artists in their works pay great attention decoratively interpreted landscape, and unlike the Msterians, all the details of the compositions are decided more enlarged. The images of Kholuy's works are more material and concretely pictorial. The founders of the Kholuy miniature were three masters: S. A. Mokin, V. D. Puzanov-Molev and K. V. Kosterin. Mokin is characterized by an underlined pathos in the interpretation of selected themes and plots (“Prince Igor”, “The Call of Stepan Razin”, etc.), which was expressed in the dynamic structure of multi-figured compositions, in the active action of the depicted characters, in the temperamental manner of writing. Puzanov-Molev attracted attention with the special epicness of the images (“Prophetic Oleg”, “Boris Godunov and the Holy Fool”, 6.9) and folklore immediacy (“Sadko”, etc.); Kosterin - in a sharp semi-graphic manner in displaying modern topics ("The power of the defense of the USSR", "A holiday on a collective farm", etc.). These artists brought up a galaxy of talented students - Honored Artists of the RSFSR V. A. Belov, N. I. Baburin, B. I. Kiselev, N. N. Denisov, artists B. V. Tikhonravov, V. I. Fomin, etc. .

More than 100 painters are currently working at the Kholuy factory of artistic lacquer miniatures. V. A. Belov and N. N. Denisov were awarded the Order of Lenin, N. I. Baburin - the Order of the Badge of Honor, N. I. Baburin and B. I. Kiselev - laureates of the State Prize of the RSFSR. I. E. Repina.

The second line of lacquer art - painting on lacquered iron trays - first appeared in Russia in the middle of the 18th century. in Nizhny Tagil at the Ural factories of the Demidovs. In a number of related crafts of mining (locksmithing, bronze, tinning, tin, riveting, chest), varnishing and painting craft appeared, which cooperated with blacksmithing and riveting in the manufacture of various lacquer products, mainly trays.

The ancestor of the lacquer business in the Urals is called the serf A. S. Khudoyarov, who invented “crystal” lacquer, which “does not crack at all on iron, copper and wood.”

Lacquer art on Ural trays developed in two directions: picture painting, close to easel painting of that time (late 18th - first quarter of the 19th century), and flower painting, related to Siberian and Ural painting on chests, birch bark, arches, spinning wheels and other objects . This second type of Ural painting reached a special development in the middle of the 19th century.

In painting trays-pictures, Tagil artists used the technique of three-layer oil painting on a reddish-brown primer applied to a dense gray pad (the composition of the primer and pad is unknown). The themes of the images were historical plots, allegories, romantic landscapes. Picture images were framed with stripes of finely executed (with the help of stencils) gold ornament. The high sides of the trays were also decorated with ornaments (often a geometric pattern was cut through the sides).

The painting was covered with transparent, like glass, "crystal" varnish, which is believed to be based on hemp oil. Trays-pictures were bought mainly by small-scale nobles. Floral "conventional" trays made in the Urals were in great demand among merchants and urban bourgeoisie.

The manufacturing technology of such trays was as follows. The master forger (blacksmith) cut out the shapes of future trays from a sheet of iron, then picked them up in six pieces, fastened the stack with brackets and knocked out (“pulled out”) the working field of the trays on a cast-iron mold with a five-pound hammer. After that, he bent the "edge" (edge) of the tray and cut holes in the sides for the handles.

The varnisher covered the tray with linseed oil and put it in a hot oven to burn it. This process was repeated several times. The black color of the trays is the color of dried drying oil.

For the best varieties of trays, black lacquer (composition unknown to us) was used.

Then, a colored primer was applied to the working field of the trays: red (red lead, less often cinnabar), green (grated malachite) or blue (grated cabbage roll).

On the painted background, the Ural craftswomen-painters "painted" bouquets of flowers in one step. Its essence was that with a large soft squirrel brush saturated with some kind of paint (mixed with white), a rounded “quivering” stroke was made, giving the impression of a complete flower, but in a highly generalized form. Leaves were depicted in the same way. Then the flowers and leaves were refined with white strokes (“sliders”) and black strokes. The “binding” here was the elastically wriggling likeness of the tendrils of grapes or loaches, filled with black paint with calligraphic skill. The painting was fixed with a layer of "crystal varnish".

The figurative structure of flowers on the Ural products was somewhat conventional and fabulous. The increased decorativeness of the Ural painting was largely determined by bright colored backgrounds. The pictorial techniques of the Ural painting are characterized by a certain flatness and graphic character in the interpretation of flowers, leaves and grass-antennae and contrast. color combinations: red, blue, green, black. The so-called "writing in half a brush" brings the Ural painting of trays closer to writing on porcelain. The compositional structure of the Ural painting is characterized by the subordination of the bouquet to the object in the scale ratio of the painting to the working field of the tray (the Ural masters left large areas of the lacquer background free from painting), the special delicacy of the bouquet, and its low workload with elements. Ural flower painting in the full sense of the word "cursive"; it is carried out in two or three doses.

In the 30s, the traditional Ural painting was replaced by "Moscow" bouquets, that is, an imitation of the art of Zhostov.

Currently, more than 50 painting artists are employed in the lacquer shop at the Nizhny Tagil plant "Emal Posuda".

In recent years, work has been carried out to restore the artistic traditions of the Ural brush painting - a necessary condition for the further successful development of the craft (see color incl. 23).

The emergence of the Zhostovo tray craft is associated with the entrepreneurial activity of the Vishnyakov family, natives of the village. Zhostovo, Troitsk volost, Moscow province (now Mytishchi district of Moscow region). Here, in 1825, on the initiative of O. F. Vishnyakov, who came from Moscow to his homeland, a workshop was organized for the production of papier-mâché lacquerware with miniature painting, similar to the neighboring Lukutin enterprise. Along with snuffboxes, tea caddies and other things that almost exactly repeat the range of items from the Lukutin factory, the Vishnyakov workshop, as well as other workshops in the area, began to produce iron lacquered trays with plot and flower painting, which later determined the nature of the Zhostovo craft.

The main motifs depicted on the trays were bouquets, artistically similar to beadwork, paintings on porcelain from factories near Moscow, Ivanovo chintz, Pavlovsk shawls, and Kursk flower carpets. The folk Ural Siberian flower painting on chests, spinning wheels, tuesas, and trays also influenced the Zhostovo bouquet. The refined “aristocratic flowers” ​​of St. Petersburg lacquered trays of the mid-19th century also had an influence. All this was refracted in the minds of the Zhostovo masters and creatively transformed into floral motifs, original in their figurative structure, full of symbolism and inner strength.

The manufacturing technology of Zhostovo trays comes down to the following: iron sheets are “cut” into blanks of the required size, then various forms of trays are cut out of them: “Siberian” - by analogy with rectangular Ural trays; oval, round, “winged” (with scalloped, wavy edges), “gothic” (with sharp, arrow-shaped edges), etc. Further, the working field of the tray was knocked out in the sheets (now it is squeezed out with a press). The prepared tray is "boarded", i.e., its edges are bent into a roller, and goes into the hands of the primers. They first “coat” the tray on both sides with putty (chalk with drying oil) in two layers (with drying and grinding of each layer), then with black thick putty (a mixture of kaolin, Dutch soot and oil). Next come two more layers of putty of the same composition, but in a more liquid consistency. Each layer after drying is polished with pumice. The primed tray is painted black and only then covered with two layers of black oil varnish.

The tray falls into the hands of Zhostovo painters after priming and light polishing with a perfectly even, slightly matte surface.

In Zhostovo they paint with oil paints, richly diluted with linseed oil and turpentine. Such paints easily "drain" from a squirrel brush, allowing you to make a long, elastic stroke.

The first stage of painting is called "painting", the second - "dressing".

In painting, with a wide brush, the silhouette of a bouquet is sketched on the working field of the tray. The painting is usually carried out without a preliminary drawing with dense, somewhat whitened paints in parallel on several trays (the Zhostovo artist usually paints from five to ten trays a day, without repeating exactly in any of them). When working, the artist constantly rotates the tray on his knee, substituting the desired area of ​​​​the working surface of the tray under the brush.

At the same time, he follows the beauty and expressiveness of the emerging silhouettes of flowers (roses, double poppies, tulips, daisies, etc.) and plastically elastically attributes to them juicy stems, flexible branches with buds at the ends. On each tray, the artist, as it were, re-solves compositional and plastic problems in depicting bouquets, and in this fascinating inspired improvisation lies the creative thought of the Zhostovo masters, making their art alive and unique.

The dried painting, made in painting, is smeared (“refreshed”) with oil, after which the artist quickly and confidently makes a “dressing”, which breaks down into a number of independent techniques: “shade”, “laying”, “highlight”, “black tezhku”, “planting seeds” and “binding”.

Strong juicy strokes of the shade are produced with a wide flat brush with pure glazing paints: blue (Prussian blue or ultramarine), green (emerald green) and red (kraplak). Tenezhka enhances the brilliance of light places of flowers and leaves and at the same time obscures (in a thick layer of colors) some forms of the bouquet, almost merging them with a black lacquer background.

When performing the “laying”, the entire palette of dense body paints is used - here the volumes of flowers and leaves are determined; glare complements the lining with highlights - marks of light on the bouquet; the drawing completes the cutting of the main flower forms with thin lines, drawing the outlines of the petals on the flowers and the veins in the leaves. In cups of flowers, artists depict stamens and pistils - this is the planting of seeds. And finally, the binding, i.e. grass, created with neutral green or brown paint in the gaps between flowers and leaves, completes the painting.

Along with the traditional black background, other colors are used in Zhostovo - red, blue, green. In this case, the field of the tray, intended for painting, is covered with a thin layer of light varnish, on which aluminum or bronze powder is sprinkled. After drying the metallized background, the tray is painted with glazing paints of the desired color (the denser the paint, the deeper and more noble the background color is perceived, slightly flickering with an internal glow).

The color scheme, of course, dictates both the choice of floral motifs in bouquets and the color scheme of the painting. It also affects the nature of some writing techniques: the shadow in this case should be more thorough - the brush cannot be as active as in painting on a black background, since the colored background softens the contrasts of the painting; the glare becomes less sharp, as the value of local tones increases in the painting and the role of the silhouette of flower forms against a colored background increases.

In addition to the multi-layered writing in Zhostovo, the so-called "letter on the roofs" is also used. In this case, the painting is done with lacquer gulfarba (a mixture of white paint and lacquer). Then sweat leaves are applied to the slightly dried lacquer painting or aluminum or bronze powder is sprinkled. The brilliant silhouette of the bouquet is highlighted with a ringing shade and cut in detail (strokes or lines) with black and brown paints. Painting on ceilings is more conditional, graphic in nature than multi-layered, picturesque painting.

The sides of the tray are usually decorated with openwork ornaments - “grass”, “herringbone”, “herringbone with a panicle”, etc. The ornament is written with squirrel brushes of lacquer gulfarba and sprinkled with bronze powder.

The finished painting is covered with three layers of light oil varnish with drying and cleaning of each layer (with pumice stone using coarse woolen cloth). The trays are polished with a polishing paste applied to a soft cloth, “mirror polishing” on the lacquer is done manually with finely ground chalk.

The traditions of Zhostovo flower painting on trays in the Soviet era were developed by I. S. Leontiev, A. I. Leznov (colour incl. 24), D. S. and N. S. Kledovs, M. R. Honored Artist of the RSFSR A.P. Gogin (6.10) and other masters. Currently, more than 150 painters work in Zhostovo. Among them are P. I. Plakhov (an experienced artist who shares his experience and knowledge with young people at the Zhostovo department of the Fedoskino Art Vocational School), Honored Artists of the RSFSR N. P. Antipov, Z. A. Kledova (Leontieva), B. V. Grafov , N. N. Mazhaev, M. P. Savelyev, artists E. P. Lapshin

The classic Zhostovo bouquet is always perfectly assembled, its forms are harmoniously coordinated with each other in scale and color. The composition is closed and saturated with internal movement - flowers, stems, leaves seem to sway from a light wind. The painting is perfectly connected with the surface of the object. In their work, the Zhostovo people carefully write out every flower shape, every petal, every bud, but do not bring them to the point of illusion. The Zhostovo bouquet is embossed, but its forms only slightly protrude above the lacquer background and just as slightly sink into it.

Of great interest is the painting on mother-of-pearl inlay, as if fused into the dense ground of the trays - in this case, floral motifs acquire the most delicate, shimmering shades of colors.

Each. an individual creative find at the Zhostovo factory of decorative painting is worked out in the process of improvisation by the entire staff of the enterprise, and this is already the key to the successful development of Zhostovo art in the future.