What is not included in the treatment of acute adrenal insufficiency? Gross domestic product. Ways to measure GDP What does not include

Gross domestic product (GDP)

Gross National Product is the total market value of all final goods and services produced in an economy (within a country) in one year.

Let's analyze each word of this definition:

• Cumulative. GDP is an aggregate indicator that characterizes the total volume of production, total output.
• Market. Only official market transactions are included in the value of GDP, i.e. who went through the process of buying and selling and were officially registered. Therefore, GNP does not include:

a) work for oneself (a person builds a house for himself, knits a sweater, repairs an apartment, a master fixes a TV or a car for himself, a hairdresser does his hair);

b) work on a gratuitous basis (friendly help to a neighbor to fix a fence, to a friend to make repairs, to a friend to drive to the airport);

c) the cost of goods and services produced by the "shadow economy".

Although the sale of clandestine products is a market transaction, it is not officially registered or recorded by the tax authorities. The volume of production of this "sector" of the economy in developed countries is from a third to a half of the total output. The shadow economy refers to those types of industries and activities that are not officially registered and are not taken into account by national statistical and tax services. Thus, the shadow economy includes not only illegal types of activity (drug business, underground dens and gambling houses), but also completely legal types, the profit from which, however, hides from paying taxes. There are no direct calculation methods for estimating the share of the shadow economy, and, as a rule, indirect methods are used, such as additional electricity consumption in excess of officially spent and additional money supply (amount of money) in circulation in excess of what is needed to service official transactions.

• Price. GDP measures total output in monetary terms, i.e. in value form, since otherwise it is impossible to add apples to sheepskin coats, cars, computers, CD players, Pepsi-Cola, etc. Money serves as a measure of the value of all goods, allowing to evaluate, measure the value of all various types of goods and services produced by the economy.
• final. All products produced by the economy are divided into final and intermediate. Final products are products that go to final consumption and are not intended for further industrial processing or resale. Intermediate products go to a further production process or resale. As a rule, intermediate products include raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, etc. However, depending on the method of use, the same product can be both an intermediate product and a final product. So, for example, the meat bought by a housewife for borscht is the final product, as it went into final consumption, and the meat bought by the McDonald's restaurant is intermediate, as it will be processed and put into a cheeseburger, which will be the final product in this case. product. All resales (sales of used items) are also not included in GDP because their value has already been taken into account once at the time of their first purchase by the final consumer.

Only the value of final products is included in GDP in order to avoid double counting. The fact is that, for example, the cost of a car includes the cost of iron, from which steel is made; steel from which rolled products are obtained; the rental from which the car is made. The calculation of the value of the final product is therefore carried out on the basis of value added. Let's look at this with an example. Suppose a farmer grows grain, sells it to a miller for $5, who grinds the grain into flour. He sold the flour to a baker for $8, who made dough out of flour and baked bread. The baker sold the pastry to the baker for $17, who sold the bread to the customer for $25. Grain for the miller, flour for the baker, pastries for the baker are intermediate products, and the bread that the baker sold to the customer is the final product.

Table 1. Value added

grain $5 $0 $5

flour $8 $5 $3

dough $17 $8 $9

bread $25 $17 $8

Total: $55 $30 $25

The first column shows the value of all sales (total sales revenue of all economic agents) equal to $55 (total output). In the second, the cost of intermediate products ($30), and in the third, the sum of value added ($25). Thus, value added is the net contribution of each producer (firm) to the total output. The sum of added values ​​($25) is equal to the cost of the final product, i.e. the amount paid by the end consumer ($25). Therefore, to avoid double counting, only value added equal to the value of the final product is included in GNP. Value added is the difference between total sales revenue and the cost of intermediate products (i.e., the cost of raw materials and materials that each producer (firm) buys from other firms). In our example: 55 - 30 = 25 ($). At the same time, all internal costs of the company (for the payment of wages, depreciation, rental of capital, etc.), as well as the profit of the company, are included in value added.

• goods and services. Anything that is not a good or service is not included in GDP. Those payments that are not made in exchange for goods and services are not included in the value of GDP. Such payments include transfer payments and unproductive (financial) transactions. Transfer payments are divided into private and public and are like a gift. Private transfers include, first of all, payments that parents make to children; gifts that relatives make to each other, etc. Government transfers are payments made by the government to households through a system social security and firms in the form of subsidies. Transfers are not included in the value of GDP: 1) because transfers do not pay for goods or services, i. as a result of this payment, there is no change in the value of GDP, i.e. nothing new is produced, and total income is only redistributed; 2) to avoid double counting, since transfer payments are included in the consumption expenditures of households (this is part of their disposable income) and in the investment expenditures of firms (as subsidies). Financial transactions include the purchase and sale of securities (stocks and bonds) on the stock market. Since there is no payment for either goods or services behind a security, these transactions do not change the value of GDP and are the result of a redistribution of funds between economic agents. (It should be borne in mind that the payment of income on securities is necessarily included in the value of GDP, since it is a payment for an economic resource, i.e. factor income, a part of national income).
• Produced in the economy (domestic). This statement is important in order to understand the difference between Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP). GNP is the total market value of all final goods and services produced by the citizens of the country with the help of what they own, i.e. national factors of production, whether in the territory of a given country or in other countries. When determining GDP, the criterion is the factor of nationality. And GDP is the total market value of all final goods and services produced in the territory of a given country, whether with the help of domestic or foreign factors of production. When determining GDP, the criterion is the territorial factor. In most developed countries, the difference between GDP and GNP does not exceed 1%. The difference between these indicators is significant for countries that receive high from the services they provide to citizens of other countries (for example, tourism services - Cyprus, Greece, Malta, etc. - or banking services - Luxembourg, Switzerland).
• Within one year. In accordance with this condition, all goods produced in previous years, decades, eras are not taken into account when calculating GDP, since they have already been taken into account in the value of GDP of the corresponding years. Therefore, to avoid double counting, only the value of a given year's output is included in GDP.

Ways to measure gross domestic product (GDP)

Three methods can be used to calculate GDP:

1. by expenditure (end-use method);
2. by income (distributive method);
3. value added (production method).

The use of these methods gives the same result, since in the economy the total income is equal to the value of the total expenditure, and the value added is equal to the value of the final product, while the value of the final product is nothing more than the sum of the costs of end consumers for the purchase of the total product.

GDP "BY EXPENDITURE"

GDP calculated by expenditures is the sum of expenditures of all macroeconomic agents, since in this case it is taken into account who acted as the final consumer of goods and services produced in the economy, who spent the funds to purchase them. When calculating GDP by expenditure, the following are summarized:

Household spending (consumer spending - C) + firm spending (investment spending - I) + government spending (government procurement of goods and services - G) + foreign sector spending (net export spending), denoted by Xn (net export)

Consumer spending (C) is the expenditure of households on the purchase of goods and services. They make up from 2/3 to 3/4 of total expenditures, are the main component of total expenditures and include: - current consumption expenditures, i.e. for the purchase of non-durable goods (these include goods that serve less than one year, but it should be noted, however, that all clothing, regardless of the period of its actual use - 1 day or 5 years - refers to current consumption); - expenses for durable goods, i.е. goods that serve more than one year (these include furniture, Appliances, cars, yachts, private jets, etc., with the exception of the cost of buying a home, which is considered not consumer, but investment spending by households); - expenditures on services (modern life cannot be imagined without a wide range of services, and the share of expenditures on services in the total amount of consumer expenditures is constantly increasing). Thus,

Consumer spending = household spending on current consumption + spending on durable goods (excluding household spending on housing) + spending on services

Investment spending (I) is the cost of firms and the purchase of investment goods. Investment goods are goods that increase the stock of capital. Investment costs include:

Investments in fixed capital, which consist of firms' expenses: a) for the purchase of equipment and b) for industrial construction (industrial buildings and structures);

Investments in housing construction (household expenditures on the purchase of housing);

Investments in inventories (inventories include: a) stocks of raw materials and materials necessary to ensure the continuity of the production process; b) work in progress, which is associated with the technology of the production process; c) stocks of finished (produced by the firm), but not yet sold products.

Investments in fixed assets and investments in housing construction constitute fixed investments (fixed investment). Inventory investment is a variable part of investment, and when calculated by expenditure, GDP does not include the amount of inventory itself, but the amount of change in inventory that occurred during the year. If the value of inventories has increased, then GDP increases by the corresponding amount, since this means that in this year additional investments were made to increase reserves. If the amount of inventories has decreased, which means that in this year the products produced and replenished stocks in the previous year were sold, therefore, the GDP of this year should be reduced by the amount of reduction in inventories. Thus, investment in inventories can be either positive or negative.

When calculating GDP by expenditure, investment is understood as gross domestic private investment. Gross investment (gross investment - Igross) is a total investment that includes both recovery investment (depreciation - depreciation - A) and net investment (net investment - Inet): I gross = A + I net This division of investment is associated with features of the functioning of fixed capital. The fact is that in the process of its use, fixed capital wears out, is “consumed” and requires replacement, “recovery” of wear and tear. That part of the investment that goes to compensate for the depreciation of fixed capital is called recovery investment or depreciation. In the system of national accounts, they appear under the name "capital consumption allowances", which can be translated as "cost of capital consumed" or "consumption of fixed capital" in the economy. Thus, the division of investment into net investment and depreciation only applies to fixed capital. Inventory investment is a net investment.

Net investment is additional investment that increases the capital stock of firms. The value of net investment lies in the fact that they are the basis for the expansion of production, growth in output. If there are net investments in the economy I net > 0, i.e. gross investment exceeds depreciation (recovery investment), I gross > A, this means that in each next year the real volume of production will be higher than in the previous one. If gross investment is equal to depreciation I gross = A, i.e. I net = 0, then this is the situation of the so-called “zero” growth, when the economy produces the same amount in each next year as in the previous one. If net investment is negative I net

NET INVESTMENT = net fixed investment + net housing investment + inventory investment

GROSS INVESTMENT = net investment + depreciation (cost of capital consumed)

Investment expenditures in the system of national accounts include only private investment, i.e. investment by private firms (private sector), and excludes public investment that is part of public procurement of goods and services.

It should also be borne in mind that this component of total expenditure only takes into account domestic investment, i.e. investments of resident firms in the economy of a given country. Foreign investment by resident firms (foreign investment) and investment by foreign firms in the economy of a given country are included in such a component of total expenditure as net exports. If the value of net exports is negative, then this corresponds to the fact that net foreign investment (net foreign investment) is negative. If net exports are positive, then net foreign investment is positive.

The third element of total spending is government spending on goods and services (G), which includes:

Government consumption (maintenance costs public institutions and organizations that ensure the regulation of the economy, security and law and order, political management, social and industrial infrastructure, as well as payment for services (salaries) of public sector employees);

Public investment (investment expenditures of state-owned enterprises)

A distinction should be made between the concept of “government spending” and the concept of “government spending”. The latter concept also includes transfer payments and interest payments on government bonds, which, as already noted, are not included in GDP because they are neither goods nor services, are not provided in exchange for goods and services, and are the result of the redistribution of aggregate income.

Net exports The last element of total expenditures is net exports (net exports – Хn). It represents the difference between export earnings (export - Ex) and import costs (import - Im) of the country and corresponds to the trade balance: Xn = Ex - Im.

GDP by spending = consumer spending (C) + gross investment spending (I gross) + government purchases (G) + net exports (Xn)

GDP "BY INCOME"

The second way to calculate GDP is the allocative or income method. In this case, GDP is considered as the sum of incomes of the owners of economic resources (households), i.e. as the sum of factor incomes. Factor incomes are:

Wages and salaries of employees (wages and salaries) of private firms, which is income from the factor "labor", i.e. payment for labor services and including all forms of remuneration for work, including basic wages, bonuses, all types of material incentives, overtime pay, etc. (the salaries of civil servants are not included in this indicator, since they are paid from the state budget (budget revenues) and are part of public procurement, and not factor income);

Rent or rent (rental payments) - income from the "land" factor and includes payments received by owners of real estate (land plots, residential and non-residential premises) (at the same time, if the homeowner does not rent out the premises belonging to him, then in the system national accounts income calculation in GNP takes into account the income that this homeowner could receive if he rented these premises; such imputed income is called "imputed rent" and is included in the total amount of rent payments;

Interest payments or interest (percent payments), which are income from capital, payment for the use of capital used in the production process (therefore, the amount of interest payments includes interest paid on bonds of private firms, but does not include interest paid on government bonds (the so-called “servicing the public debt”), since government bonds are issued not for production purposes, but to finance the state budget deficit);

Profit, i.e. income from the “entrepreneurial ability” factor. In the system of national accounts, profit is divided into two parts in accordance with the legal form of enterprises:

Profit from the unincorporated sector of the economy, including sole (individual) firms and partnerships (this type of profit is called “proprietors’ income”);

Profit of the corporate sector of the economy based on the form of joint ownership (share capital) (this type of profit is called “corporate profit”. Corporate profit is divided into three parts: 1) corporate income tax (paid to the state); 2) dividends (the distributed part of the profit) that the corporation pays to shareholders; 3) undistributed profits of corporations, remaining after the company's settlements with the state and shareholders and serving as one of the internal sources of financing of net investments, which is the basis for the corporation to expand production, and for the economy as a whole - economic growth.

In addition to factor income, GDP calculated by the income stream method includes two elements that are not the income of the owners of economic resources.

The first such element is indirect taxes on business. A tax is a forced payment by a household or firm of a certain amount of money to the government not in exchange for goods and services. Taxes are divided into direct and indirect. Direct taxes include taxes on income, inheritance, property. The taxpayer and the tax bearer are one and the same economic agent. Indirect taxes are part of the price of a good or service. A feature of indirect taxes is that they are paid by the buyer of a product or service, and paid to the state by the company that produced them. Thus, the taxpayer and the tax bearer in this case are different economic agents. Since GDP is a cost indicator, as in the price of any product, it includes indirect taxes, which, when calculating GDP, must be added to the sum of factor incomes. Although taxes are state income, they are not included in the amount of factor income, since the state, being a macroeconomic agent, is not the owner of economic resources.

Another element that should be taken into account (added) when calculating GDP by income is depreciation, since it is also included in the price of any product. So,

GDP by income = wages + rents (including imputed rents) + interest payments + owner income + corporate profits + indirect taxes + depreciation

GDP "VALUE ADDED"

The third method of calculating GDP is the summation of value added for all sectors and types of production in the economy (value-added calculation method). For example, the American economy is divided into 7 large sectors, such as industry, agriculture, construction, services, etc. For each of the sectors, the value added is calculated and then summed up.

Obviously, the value of GDP calculated different methods, should be the same (the difference can be only at the level of statistical errors). Theoretically, this conclusion follows from the fact that the sum of the values ​​added by each firm (at each stage of production) is equal to the value of the final product. On the other hand, value added is the difference between a firm's revenue and the cost of buying other firms' products, and therefore equals the firm's net income. All this is clearly visible in the diagram corresponding to diagram 1 (definition of value added)

The bread was sold to the buyer for $25 (the value of the final product is $25), the agents' income was: farmer $5 + miller $3 ($8 - $5) + baker $9 ($17 - $8) + baker $8 ($25 - $17) = $25, value added is : Farmer's $5 + Miller's $3 + Baker's $9 + Baker's $8 = $25. Thus, all counting methods gave the same result - $25.

To determine the effectiveness of the use of funds at the enterprise to pay employees, the calculation of the wage fund is used. It includes the sum of all funds that the organization's personnel receive for their work.

Briefly about the wage fund

Under the wage fund, you need to understand all those funds that go to the wages of employees of an enterprise, firm or organization. All allowances, compensations and bonuses can be attributed to their number, from whatever source they are accrued.

This indicator helps to analyze the salary costs for the personnel of the enterprise by structural divisions. This makes it possible to optimize spending, change in one direction or another or rates. The amount of the wage fund becomes a benchmark for calculating pensions and insurance premiums. The payroll becomes a very important element for the correct distribution of funds within the organization, which helps to encourage employees to best performance their duties.

The structure of the payroll - what does it include?

To calculate the total cost of the enterprise for the payment of wages to employees, the payroll (wage fund) is calculated. To determine this number, the following data must be included:

• salaries of staff, depending on their duties;
• if earnings are accrued to employees in the form of goods manufactured at the enterprise, then the cost of these products must be included;
• all types and types of incentives that are issued in monetary terms;
• compensation for the harmfulness of work, the degree of its difficulty, payments for overtime work;
• if the company provides employees with free meals, then the funds allocated for it should also be taken into account when calculating the payroll;
• different types of bonuses, including those for continuous work and for years of service;
• compensation for sick leave, absenteeism (without an employee's vein);
• allowances for those employees who were transferred to a position that is considered lower than he had before;
• money for travel, payment for accommodation for those employees who work on a rotational basis;
• money to pay third-party employees;
• funds for the payment of pensions, if the employee had to go to it in a special case.

The wage fund does not need to include the following amounts:

• dividends;
• loans that are issued free of charge;
• social assistance benefits, the issuance of which occurs from the State budget of the country (this includes state compensations);
• awards that are given for excellent work throughout the year;
• material assistance to the personnel of the enterprise (regardless of its type);
• cash compensation for rising prices.

The payroll calculation does not take into account one-time, or those that are not permanent. Also, you do not need to take into account the funds that are paid to employees from insurance funds.

Difference from FZP

The wage fund is a certain amount of funds that is distributed in the enterprise among all employees, in accordance with the work that they performed. When calculating, tariff rates, salaries or labor rates are taken into account.

The RFP includes:

• any form of remuneration for employees;
• bonuses, various kinds of surcharges and allowances;
• compensation paid for difficult working conditions.

Social payments are not included in the payroll. At the same time, the payroll fund is a broader concept that includes all the funds that are accrued to the employees of the enterprise, including the payroll.

The payroll fund differs from the payroll precisely in that it includes only those amounts that the employee should receive for hours worked or work done (depending on the method of remuneration), including only those bonuses that are directly related to salary.

Settlement period

Payroll calculation periods are divided into several subspecies:

• annual - for its calculation, data for the past calendar year, with its help determine the total amount of the wage fund;
• monthly - calculated mainly for reporting for a certain period of operation of the enterprise;
• daytime - used for in-depth analysis of spending on salaries for employees, used very rarely;
• hourly - is used only at those enterprises that have chosen an hourly form for remuneration of employees.

The calculation and analysis of the payroll is necessary to familiarize yourself with the reasons for salary expenses from those that were planned. The result of such an analysis is the implementation of measures aimed at correcting errors in the use of payroll.

To correctly analyze the salary fund of an enterprise, wages are divided into two types:

• constant, which includes the salary itself and;
• a variable that includes the labor costs of the employees involved in the transaction.

Payroll analysis is carried out in order to find out the reasons for deviations in the planning of wage payments.

How to calculate the annual payroll?

Employees of the enterprise responsible for the calculation of the payroll should be familiar with the rules by which this calculation takes place. It is very important to understand that the payment system that exists in the company most of all affects its level. To do this, you need to take into account the following factors:

• salary amount;
• piecework rates;
• various bonuses and allowances.

To receive all necessary information payroll should be used.

The calculation of the annual payroll is based on the following information:

• Payroll records for the company for the year. These papers must indicate the amount of all payments that were made to employees.
• Documents in which the accounting of working hours (time sheets) is depicted. They are needed to count the number of hours that an employee has worked at the enterprise. To fill them out, there is a certain person who monitors the correctness of the specified data.
• schedule. This document contains all the information about salaries, tariff rates. Also there you can find a list of all employees of the enterprise.

There is no standard formula for calculating the annual payroll. But there are two ways to do this.

In the first method, the calculation formula will look like this:

FOT \u003d W * H * 12, where

• FOT - wage fund;
• C - average for a certain period (in this case, a year);
• H - the number of employees in accordance with the lists for the organization.

Getting the number of average wages is quite simple. All payments that are allocated to employees should be divided by 12.

The second method involves using the following formula:

FOT \u003d (Z + D) * K, where

• FOT - wage fund;
• Z - the salary that was accrued to employees for the year;
• D - all additional payments and other incentives for employees;
• K - the established coefficient for those organizations that operate in the Far North or territories close to it.

How to find monthly payroll?

You need to understand that when using the time-based method of remuneration, it is necessary to take into account the tariff rate per hour of work. To calculate planned payments to employees, you need to multiply this number by the number of hours worked per month.

If a bonus system is used, then the resulting number must also be multiplied by the coefficient of such an allowance. For example, if the rate is 50 rubles, and the month has 20 working days, the coefficient has the number 1.5, then the employee's salary will be 12 thousand rubles. If wages are accrued according to plan, then to calculate the monthly coefficient, you will simply need to multiply the salary amount by the bonus coefficient.

After determining the salaries of all employees for the month, along with bonuses, they need to be summed up. But this is not the whole process in determining the average monthly payroll.

You also need to take into account the additional funds that are paid to employees. This category may include allowances, surcharges and other various types.

In addition, the company may have in its staff and those employees who combine the position with work in some other organization. Their wages should also be taken into account when calculating the payroll. After summing up all these indicators, the total amount of the payroll is obtained. The calculation of the daily payroll is carried out in a similar way.

The payroll fund is an indicator that contains all payments Money employees, including those related to the social sphere. The organization and calculation of the payroll takes place on the basis of regulations and rules adopted by the organization.

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What is not included in the conformity assessment forms established by the Federal Law

What legislative act officially introduces certification in the Russian Federation?

How is the term conformity assessment defined in the Law "On Technical Regulation"?

How is the term conformity assessment defined in ISO/IEC 17000:2004?

How the term conformity assessment is defined in the interpretation of ISO/IEC

17000:2004 ?

How is the term assessment confirmation of conformity defined in the interpretation of the law

"On technical regulation"?

How the term Conformity Attestation Form is defined in the interpretation of the law

"On technical regulation"?

How is the term Certification defined in the interpretation of the Law "On Technical Regulation"?

How is the term Certificate of Conformity defined in the interpretation of the Law "On Technical Regulation".

How is the term Declaration of Conformity defined in ISO/IEC 17000:2004?

What is a Compliance Mark?

How is the term Product Identification defined in the interpretation of the Law "On Technical Regulation".

How is the term Product Safety defined? production processes,

operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal:

14. How is the term Tolerable Risk defined:

What is not included in the goals and principles of conformity assessment?

What is not included in the conformity assessment principles?

What forms of confirmation of conformity are not provided for by the legislation of the Russian Federation?

What are the main tasks of the certification body?

In what cases is mandatory confirmation of conformity carried out?

How is the form and schemes of mandatory confirmation of conformity established?

Declaration of conformity is carried out according to one of the following schemes?

How is the circle of applicants for declaring conformity determined?

What cannot be used as evidentiary materials when declaring conformity based on own evidence?

Who approves the form of the declaration of conformity?

How are the certification schemes used to certify certain types of products established?

Which organizations that carry out work on confirmation of conformity are not participants in certification?

Who can act as a certification body?

What does not apply to the functions of the certification body?

Rights of the Applicant for mandatory certification?

30. The applicant for certification is obliged:

How are certification systems classified?

What does not include the definition of a conformity assessment (certification) system?

33. The supplier's declaration of conformity, under his full responsibility, certifies that the product (service) complies with:

34. The legal basis for certification in the Russian Federation is established by the Laws:

35. Certification confirms compliance with the established requirements:

36. Purposes of certification:

37. Voluntary certification certifies compliance with:

38. Accreditation of the body for certification of construction products is organized by:

39. Mandatory certification in Russia was introduced on the basis of the Law:

40. In order for the certificate of conformity to be put into effect, its registration is required:

41. International standards ISO 9000 series in Russia are:

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breakeven point
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sustainable and efficient
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Adjustments to project parameters and economic standards
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bias factor
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comparability alternative options
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Decision tree method
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Foreign policy risk
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Assess the quality of the task
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Certainties
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Economic model
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Risk Acceptability
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Stability test method
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Optimal Solutions
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Workforce Efficiency
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TO competitive advantage of the firm
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Task
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Timeliness of decisions
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Management decision quality requirements
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Conditions for ensuring the quality of a management decision
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The rational nature of the decision
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Mission of the organization

GDP - Gross Domestic Product- one of the main macroeconomic indicators that characterizes the level of economic development of the state in absolute terms. The value of the indicator is determined by the market (sales) value of all final goods, services produced and used within the country. In this case, only final (directly intended for consumption) products and services are taken into account, while nationality, citizenship, etc. people who produced this product are ignored.

Only official market transactions are included in the value of GDP, that is, those that have gone through the process of buying and selling and have been officially registered. That's why GDP does not include: A). labor for oneself (a person builds a house for himself, knits a sweater, repairs an apartment, a master fixes a TV or a car for himself, a hairdresser does his hair); b). labor for free (friendly help to a neighbor to fix a fence, a friend to make repairs, a friend to drive to the airport); V). the value of goods and services produced by the shadow economy. The shadow economy refers to those types of industries and activities that are not officially registered and are not taken into account by national statistical and tax services. Thus, the shadow economy includes not only illegal activities (drug business, underground dens and gambling houses), but also completely legal activities, the profit from which is hidden from taxes.

At the level of GDP, only official markets are included so that you went through the process of buying and selling and were officially registered. Tom GDP does not include: A). working on oneself (the person herself will be doing her own work, in "even light, repairing the apartment, the master himself will make a TV set or a car, a car will do his own work); b). work on a free basis (friends to help the susіdovі help parkan, repair a friend, bring a friend to the airport); V). variety of goods and services, generated by the shadow economy. Under the shadow economy, there are certain types of variability and activity, as they are not officially registered and are not insured by national statistical and tax services. Before the shadow economy, in this manner, one can see not only illegal activities (drug business, subsidized kublas and grave houses), but also a lot of legal activities, surpluses in the form of taxes.

Not included in the GDP calculation financial transactions, securities transactions, sales on the secondary market (used cars, apartments, houses, clothes, etc.). Financial operations do not create real value, and the sale of previously used items has already been taken into account earlier in the calculation of previous GDP indicators.

How GDP is calculated

GDP measures total output in monetary terms, i.е. in value form, since otherwise it is impossible to put apples with sheepskin coats, cars, computers, pepsi-cola, etc. Money serves as a measure of the value of all goods, allowing to evaluate, measure the value of all goods and services produced. All products produced by the economy divided into final and intermediate. end products- these are products that go to final consumption and are not intended for further industrial processing or resale. Intermediates goes into the further process of production or resale. As a rule, intermediate products include raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, etc. However, depending on the method of use, the same product can be both an intermediate product and a final product. So, for example, the meat bought by a housewife for borscht is the final product, as it went into final consumption, and the meat bought by the McDonald's restaurant is intermediate, as it will be processed and invested in a cheeseburger, which will be in in this case, the end product. All resales (sales of used items) are also not included in GDP because their value has already been taken into account once at the time of their first purchase by the final consumer. Only the value of final products is included in GDP in order to avoid double counting. The fact is that, for example, the cost of a car includes the cost of iron (from which steel is made), steel (from which they are rolled), etc. Therefore, the calculation of the cost of final products is based on value added. To avoid double counting, only value added equal to the value of the final product is included in GDP. Added value is the difference between total sales revenue and the cost of intermediate products – i.e. the cost of raw materials and materials that each manufacturer (firm) buys from other firms. Anything that is not a product or service is not included in GDP. Those payments that are not made in exchange for goods and services not taken into account in the value of GDP. Such payments include transfer payments and unproductive (financial) transactions. Transfer payments are divided into private and public and represent gratuitous income. TO private transfers include, first of all, payments that parents make to children: gifts that relatives make to each other, etc. Government transfers are payments that the state makes to households through the social security system and firms in the form of subsidies. Transfers are not included in the value of GDP: since there is no payment for either goods or services behind transfers, i.e. as a result of this payment, there is no change in the value of GDP (nothing new is produced, and total income is only redistributed); to avoid double counting, as transfer payments are included in household consumption spending (as part of their disposable income) and firm investment spending (as subsidies). Financial transactions include the purchase and sale of securities on the stock market. Since there is no payment for either goods or services behind a security, these transactions do not change the value of GDP and are the result of a redistribution of funds between economic agents. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that the payment of income on securities is necessarily included in the value of GDP, since it is a payment for an economic resource, i.e. factor income, part of the national income. All goods produced in previous years, decades, eras are not taken into account when calculating GDP, since they have already been taken into account in the value of GDP of the corresponding years. Therefore, to avoid double counting, only the value of a given year's output is included in GDP.

GDP is dying sukupny obsjag vyrobnitstvu penny virazі, then vartіsnіy formі, oskіlki іnakshe it's impossible to put an apple with sheepskin coats, cars, computers, pepsi - cola and so on. equalize the prices of all the goods and services All products that are shaped by the economy, divide into kіntseva i promіzhna. Kіntseva products- all products, as if they were on sale in the UK, are not recognized for further processing or resale. Industrial products go to a further process of virobnitstva or resales. As a rule, syrovin, materials, finished products, etc. are added to industrial products. However, in the case of staleness in the way of winning, one and the same product can be an intermediate product, and end. So, for example, m "yaso, bought by a housewife for borscht, є kіntsevy product, so it went in kіntsev spozhivannya, and m" yaso, bought by the McDonald's restaurant, - by the middle, so it will be a pіddane relabtsi and invested in a cheeseburger, which will be the ultimate product in this case. All resale (sale of live speeches) is also not included in the GDP, the shards of their art were already once insured at the time of their first purchase by a gentleman. GDP includes only the variety of end products z tim, schob niknuti repeated (podvіyny) rahunki. On the right, in that, for example, the quality of a car includes the quality of the hall (for which steel is spun), steel (for which rolling is taken), etc. That's why the helluva lot of kіntsevoi production is carried out for additional varіstyu. Shchob niknuti re-rahunka, the GDP includes only the added value, which is more expensive than the final product. Dodana varity- the price of the difference between the raw material for sale and the variety of industrial products - that is the variety of syrovin and materials, like leather goods (company) buying from other companies. Everything that is not a commodity but a service, not included in GDP. Ті payments, yakі robyatsya not in exchange for goods and services, don't cheat to the vartosti of GDP. Before such payments, transfer payments and unproductive (financial) payments are made. Transfer payments podіlyayutsya on private states and is a free income. Before private transfers to be seen, in pershu black, to pay, like fathers to give gifts to children, like one to one to give relatives, etc. sovereign transfers- tse vipay, like a power to work for home ownership for the system of social security and for firms from looking for subsidies. Transfers are not included in the variant of GDP: so, as for transfers, there is no payment for nі goods, nі services, so that as a result of cієї you don’t have to pay zmіn the size of GDP (you don’t see anything new, and the current income is less likely to be re-adjusted); In order to hide the dependent account, the transfer payments are included in the savings of household expenses (as a part of their income) and investment expenses of firms (in the form of subsidies). Prior to financial transactions, the purchase and sale of valuable papers on the stock market are due. Oskіlki for a cіnniy paper is also not varto payment for nі goods, nі services, cі please don’t change the value of GDP і є as a result of rerozpodіlu koshtіv mіzh economic agents. With all the help of the mother in the country, that the payment of income on valuable papers "is clearly included in the variance of GDP, the chips are the payment for an economical resource, that is a factor income, a part of the national income. All commodities that were destroyed in previous years, ten years, epochs are not insured at the feast of GDP, stinks of stench were already insured at the vartost of GDP in recent years. To that, in order to get rid of the underbelly of the rahunka, the GDP includes only the varity of the commitment to the given fate.

Nominal and real GDP

Since the economy of any state is subject to inflationary processes, then after calculating nominal GDP(in current prices) calculate real GDP(in comparable prices). Comparison of real GDP for the current and past (or any other) period makes it possible to assess the real growth of the state's economy. In this case, the base (earlier) period is taken as 100%, and the value of GDP in the period under evaluation is already determined relative to it.

To compare GDP different countries convert at the exchange rate. However, in some cases, purchasing power parity conversions are used to avoid serious distortions in estimating the GDP of countries with non-convertible currencies. Purchasing power parity is a calculation method that takes into account the number of monetary units of one country in relation to the number of monetary units of another country, at which the same set of goods and services can be purchased.

used to calculate GDP three main methods:

• value added method
• Expenditure method of calculating GDP (production method)
• Method of calculating GDP by income (distributive method)

Each of these methods has its own advantages and disadvantages.

value added method uses the value of goods and services intended for consumption in the calculation of GDP. That is, those that are finally consumed and are no longer used in production processes for processing, processing, assembly, etc. In this case, value added is the total amount of market prices for the products of business entities, from which it is necessary to subtract the cost of consumed raw materials and materials received from suppliers. The total sum of such values ​​will give GDP, which represents the market estimate of the total value of all goods and services produced by the state's economy for the period.

Method of calculating GDP by expenditure(also often referred to as the production method) defines GDP by calculating the sum of all the costs of economic activities for the purchase of final products and services. To calculate GDP using this method, you need to sum:

• consumer spending of the population (С)
• gross private investment in the national economy
• public procurement of goods and services
• net exports (the absolute difference between a country's exports and imports)

GDP = C + Ig + G + NX

Where:
C - consumer spending of the population
Ig - gross private investment in the national economy
G - public procurement of goods and services
NX - net export

Method of calculating GDP by income(often referred to as the allotment method) is based on the calculation of the amount of income of the owners of business entities. That is, to calculate GDP, the incomes of all business entities operating in the territory of the state are summed up. At the same time, the income of both residents and non-residents is summed up. It also sums up indirect and direct taxes on businesses, depreciation, property income and retained earnings.

Thus, the formula for calculating GDP looks like this:

GDP = W + Q + R + P + T

Where:
W - wages paid by business entities, regardless of the presence (absence) of citizenship
Q - social security contributions and other obligatory payments
R - gross profit of business entities
P - gross mixed income
T - taxes on production and imports (government subsidies are deducted from this amount, if any).

To assess the performance of economies, comparing labor productivity levels and living standards, macroeconomic indicators lead to the indicator "per capita". At the same time, the calculation GDP per capita allows you to compare labor productivity in countries with different territories and populations. That is, the calculated level of GDP is divided by the number of people in this territory. However, since accurate data only exist for the citizens of a given country, the Gross National Product (GNP) per capita is usually used. It allows you to assess the standard of living in a particular country.