Can mechanical energy be negative. Negative energy in humans

In our bustling world, it is almost impossible to maintain a harmonious aura, constantly engaging in the exchange of subtle matters with people and objects.

Negative energy in a person appears due to the destruction of positive vibrations, wrong thinking or the impact of people and objects of the other world. But do not be afraid of problems in the biofield, because the negative can be displaced or transformed, and then resort to methods of protecting subtle matters.

Why does a person lose energy?

In most cases, the outflow of vitality is associated with the extreme attachment of the individual to the events of the past. We are talking about the so-called bindings created by the energy of other people, significant for the subject, and also constantly supported by negative emotions.

Usually a person often returns to stressful situations, negative circumstances of his life. Obsessive experiences and doubts are feelings that require a lot of energy, so the biofield weakens. The main types of the most energy-consuming states are:

Feeling sorry for yourself and others

The desire not to betray others and constantly takes care of them, as well as the desire to shield oneself in any situation, lead to the loss of enormous vitality.

Pity is not love, so it does not replenish the aura with fresh and clean energy. Sacrifice and a constant desire to help are simply a form of unequal energy exchange.

Resentment

Memories associated with unfair events in relation to the person himself disturb the soul and mind most often. Thinking things over constantly takes a lot of time and effort.

In addition, project negative emotions onto your offender - the right way get the same answer, and even in an increased volume. The same applies to the desire for revenge, when a person spends energy on developing a plan for retaliatory evil.

Feelings of shame, guilt, or humiliation

Memories of being used or doing wrong are associated with an irreparable situation, it is frightening and annoying.

A person is angry with himself, so he not only kills positive energy flows, but also fills the biofield with negative matters.

Envy

This emotion not only does not allow you to enjoy the joys of life yourself, but also spoils the energy of another person who has become the object of envy. As a result, the law of karma works, and the person is buried in his own negativity and experiences. Time is wasted on empty dreams, not real goals.

Some of the emotions that arise are not so much related to real people how much with the objects of the material world. Very often a person is forced to part with some objects, valuables, money. When he constantly thinks about his losses, gets angry at himself and others, he wastes energy 24 hours a day. At the same time, his thoughts do not leave him even in a dream, so that at night the biofield is not updated.

There are several other reasons why a person does not have enough energy.

• Firstly, the lifestyle plays a role, because if an individual is engaged in what the heart does not lie in, he constantly suffers.
• Secondly, the suppression of one's own emotional experiences at the root. Sometimes energy can leak due to the fact that a person has shifted the boundaries of interpersonal communication. Some people can become chronic carriers of a heavy aura because they have many psychological traumas, including those that originate from childhood and relationships with parents.

Energy outflow classification

Some of the esotericists classify the causes of the outflow of energy according to what level of the human body they affect:

• Stooped and hunched postures, strong looseness of movements, external imitation of other people, as well as diseases, muscle clamps, sharp and spontaneous movements, aggressive dances steal energy from the physical shell.
• The ethereal double lacks vitality due to improper breathing, lack of communication with nature, and a reduced general tone.
• The astral body loses energy due to negative emotions, pessimism and depression. Internal conflicts, conflicting desires, addictions and attachments, sleep disorders also affect here.
• The outflow of vitality at the level of the mental layer of the aura occurs due to the chaotic flow of thoughts, frequent immersion in the world of dreams and useless chatter.

Why does a bad aura appear in rooms? Here, subtle matters of previous apartment owners, as well as energy traces of death and illness, can influence. Any space retains the negative message of evil people and energy vampires. It makes sense to clear the biofield of a house or office space after major scandals and conflicts.

Negative beings in the aura

Among the evil entities that choose a weakened aura or a bunch of negativity as their habitat, there is a classification of their own.

The presence of such a formation in the biofield can be judged by the appearance of growths and tumors not only in the energy, but also in the physical body.

Any small entity attracts similar thought forms, which leads to the complete filling of the shell with negativity, a change in human behavior and the destruction of organs. It is noteworthy that these creatures have a habit of settling not only in people, but also in residential premises. Because of them, the atmosphere at home deteriorates sharply, a bad aura is observed in the office, and accidents occur at work.

The main alien energy-informational structures from the subtle world are:

• deceitful spirit- an entity that leads to severe depression and is dangerous due to the appearance of false thoughts and emotions. Often clings to the aura of those who associate with people who are prone to risks. These are, for example, drug addicts, avid casino players, betting enthusiasts.
• Lucifer- the formation of the other world of unearthly origin. Most often appears in the biofield on a full moon or a new moon. Signs of the essence are fits of rage, intense lust, a thirst for controversy, violence and sex. These vibrations can pretend to be another formation, a false entity. To get rid of the creature, one must repent of the sins from past lives.
• Archimania structures of greed and power. The owner of such an essence, the level of spiritual values ​​falls due to the desire for material wealth.
• UFO- an energy structure of obsession that arises in the biofield at the moment of a dream about traveling on a spaceship. The carriers of such an education have strange marks on the body, scars and wounds. You can get rid of the essence only in 75-80 sessions of cleaning the aura.
• Anti-religious entity- an alien structure that interferes with visiting confessional rites. At the same time, the most incredible reasons arise in a person’s head for which he cannot go to the temple or communicate with the clergyman.
• Nerve Blocker- an energy essence that enhances the consequences of any stressful situation. A person begins to have pain in the neck or back, migraines and a constant tic of the face are also observed. If an individual has suffered a deep personal tragedy, the “Grief” program can be attached to him.
• Self programming- this is an entity that is formed by itself, without guidance by external influences. Usually this structure is attracted by a constant mental stream of a negative type. These may be worries due to financial difficulties, problems in personal life, etc. According to the criterion of the formation mechanism, there is also an alien structure, consciously created by other people and settled in the biofield magic ritual. At the same time, it is necessary to single out separately those entities that come from sorcerers or witches.
• Fire or air structure- the destructive energy of a person, caused by frequent contact with the elements of fire or air. Usually found in heavy smokers. The entity attacks on a full moon, and is especially attracted to the injured thin shell. The main symptoms are overexcitation and angry attacks.
• Leech- an alien neoplasm, attracted by low vibrational radiations of human thoughts. Usually they penetrate because of the eternal desire to be rich and successful, because the person is thus slowed down in spiritual development.
• Earth sign of Cancer is an external entity caused by gluttony and copious sexual contact. It attacks on the full moon those who do not know the measure of life, and leads to emotional imbalance, a sense of fear and physical weakness. If this structure overcomes the aura, the person will be pale or their skin will become earthy. Vibrations of this type tend to provoke oncology.
• Reptile- energy generation generated by bad thoughts, vile desires. Causes depression, agitation, tearfulness, sleep disturbances, aggression, suicidal thoughts. The most common type of such a creature is the larva, which seeks to strengthen its bad habits e.g. megalomania.
  Larvae in the heart cause jealousy and envy, and larvae from the right side are attracted from the so-called 13th brown world, and they are considered the most dangerous due to the development of incomprehensible diseases in the human body.

Under the ceiling in the room there are small flyers and films that rarely communicate with the individual, but feed on the energy of his deeds. Energy seals can be found in any remote space without direct sunlight and the possibility of ventilation. They hide at a height of 2-3 meters.

Some fliers get into the openings of the apartment during the renovation. From the point of view of real harm, the most dangerous indoors seem to be striped energy creatures without a head, which are sources of infectious diseases.

Negative energies affecting a person

In some cases, the aura is severely deformed and the energy begins to flow away when a conscious magical effect has been exerted on the biofield of the personality. Also, energy entities from the other world can cling to a weakened thin shell. negative information, which people transmit to each other, can be divided into several types:

Evil eye

The procedure for filling the astral body of the aura with negative information from the outside. At the same time, the new energy has an emotional coloring, as a rule, destructive. The evil eye disrupts the work of the astral layer, blocking the etheric body.

Such exposure is especially dangerous for young children who do not know how to defend themselves.

As a result, they develop stomach infections and skin diseases. As for adults, they have the unpleasant consequences of the evil eye appear after a few months. These are unfounded fears, insecurity, nightmares, pain in the heart and lower back.

Corruption

This is a negative information and energy influence with the help of a special spell. Here the mental body receives a clot in the form of negative thought forms.

Damage can be caused due to envy, but not to a close relative. This is also done by sorcerers, psychics, witches.

Love spell or conspiracy

This is an energy flow that leads to various physical diseases and mental disorders. These information flows are of no use unless the cause of the problem is corrected. Otherwise, a person simply becomes irritated or tired, he suffers from tantrums and persecution mania, shows aggressiveness, does not want to live.

Any potential diseases are driven even deeper into the life processes of the body.

Damn

The most destructive energy with a negative message. This form of influence affects the causal body - the most subtle matter responsible for karma. The curse is very powerful and vicious, because it wants to destroy a person by breaking his connection with cosmic forces. At the same time, even the physical shell and the mental body are destroyed.

There is also a generic curse - hereditary information in the subconscious with a sharply negative mood and emotional stress. As many as 7 generations can suffer from this energy, which will have hereditary diseases. Ancestral curse damages the True Self and the astral field.

Releasing negative energy on a person

Violation of energy as a result of accidental or purposeful human impact can always be felt not only at the initial stage, but also at the moment of transmission of negative flows. At the same time, the source of negativity does not have to be in direct contact with the carrier of the aura. Therefore, it is so important to listen to your inner feelings and intuition prompts.

It is worth noting that the transfer of negative energy is not always an end in itself, sometimes it is just by-effect unilateral energy exchange.

In particular, energy vampires or people whose life force channels are blocked due to damage seek to receive healthy energy from others. As a result, they automatically give them part of their deformed energy.

But one way or another, dumping bad clots is an unpleasant procedure, and it is better to prevent it in advance.

How to determine that negative signals are being transmitted to you in the biofield

The person is forced into a conversation

He talks about his problems, demands pity and compassion. Sometimes for the sake of attention, he may begin to behave defiantly or even aggressively. Wanting to shed his negativity, the individual cries in a vest, wants to get advice. A person wants to involve his future donor in difficulties and troubles.

A boring monologue and complaints can be poured not only in personal meetings, but also by phone. Sometimes people may speak in a singsong voice or, conversely, whisper and hiss to sound threatening.

Suspended Critic

The opposite strategy also happens - this is the position of a detached critic. Usually such a person is at a distance from you, but then he starts to find fault, his calmness is disturbed by an emotional storm.

Some of these people seek to irritate their victim consciously, using those channels of influence to which a person will respond more sensitively. For example, you can yell at the auditory, and make a remark about the appearance of the visual.

A personal meeting

If the meeting is personal, when transmitting negativity, a person will definitely take a threatening pose. A very important energy bridge is also direct visual contact.

Such people like to slam doors, constantly touch their own clothes, especially if they are dressed provocatively to attract visuals.

Entering into physical contact

An important part of the discharge of negative flows, if the victim and the carrier of the negative are kinesthetics. A person can not only touch his hands, face, shoulders, but also step on his foot, push. Throwing objects towards the future donor is also likely.

If you encounter, for example, a gypsy, then she can even pull out a hair from you or put any small object into your hands, and then take it back.

How to resist the transfer of negative energy and not become a donor of healthy vitality against your will? It is best not to listen to the person, interrupt the conversation, sit back and always be calm. Sometimes it makes sense to change the image so as not to attract the attention of energy vampires. It is also useful to imagine an imaginary mirror protection around the body. During forced communication, you can mentally distance yourself from a dangerous interlocutor, going into the world of your fantasies.

If you yourself have a need to discard negative energy, do not point it at a living object, use the power of the elements instead. You can look at the flow of the river, dissolving thoughts in it, at the rain and the flame of a candle. It is useful to take salt baths, speak stones, burn chips in a fire, imagine funnels with negativity going into the ground.

How does a heavy aura affect the interlocutor?

The carrier of a negative biofield greatly exhausts everyone around him, even with fleeting and sweet communication. If communication is long, then there is a feeling of melancholy, melancholy, depression, disbelief in one's own strength.

There may be a feeling of loneliness, groundless aggression, thoughts of suicide. At night, a person will be tormented by nightmares.

The most terrible thing in the influence of heavy energy is the attraction to the interlocutor of all kinds of minor failures and major troubles. Therefore, many people immediately begin to feel at the moment of communication an inexplicable fear, anxiety, approaching danger.

On the physical level, the heavy energy of the interlocutor also makes itself felt. Usually a person begins to feel a headache, incomprehensible pressure and tingling in different parts of the body. Rib cage becomes compressed, heart aches. Sometimes the state of health can resemble a cold with fever and perspiration on the forehead. Asthmatic attacks, shortness of breath, jumps in blood pressure often begin. Drowsiness, hiccups and yawns become the result of a sudden breakdown due to the energy pressure of someone else's aura.

Negative energy in a person often becomes a cause of discomfort for himself and those around him. Therefore, you should regularly diagnose your own aura for negative clots and try to look at the world with a positive look, sending only good intentions and thoughts to the world.

N.K. Gladysheva, IOSO RAE, school No. 548, Moscow

This issue has never been specifically addressed in the so-called stable textbooks. It was thought that it was too difficult for students high school. At the same time, "by default" students (and often teachers) believe that energy can only be a positive value. This leads to misunderstandings in the analysis of energy conversion in various processes. For example, how to explain that when water is boiled, all the energy imparted to the substance goes to evaporation, while the average kinetic energy the motion of particles does not change, and the interaction energy of particles becomes equal to zero? Where does the energy coming from the heater go? There are many such examples. But it is more expedient not to keep silent that the energy of interaction of bodies can be both positive and negative. Difficulties in understanding this provision are far-fetched. After all, even students primary school understand that the ambient temperature can be both positive and negative! Moreover, schoolchildren quite easily perceive the existence along with the Kelvin scale of other temperature scales (Celsius, Fahrenheit, Réaumur). Thus, the idea that the numerical value of some physical quantity depends on the conditionally chosen origin of its reference is not incomprehensible to a high school student.

Choosing the origin of the potential energy

We will show how to explain to students that in the study of mechanical phenomena in many cases it is convenient to choose the reference level of potential energy so that it will have a negative value.

The analysis of energy transformation implies a more detailed acquaintance of students with its forms. In any textbook it is reported that a body of mass m, moving relative to a chosen frame of reference with some speed v, has kinetic energy Ekin = mv2/2 in this frame. If in some frame of reference the body is motionless, then its kinetic energy is equal to zero. Therefore, the kinetic energy of the body is called the energy of motion. Unlike other characteristics of motion, such as velocity v or momentum p = mv, kinetic energy is not related to the direction of motion. It is a scalar quantity. It is advisable to invite students to show on their own that the kinetic energy of a body and a system of bodies cannot be a negative value.

The nature of potential energy can be completely different. In the case of a mathematical pendulum (a material point of mass m, suspended on a weightless inextensible thread of length l), it is associated with the attraction of the pendulum's load by the Earth. It is this gravitational interaction that reduces the speed of the load as it moves upward. In the case of a tennis ball hitting a wall, potential energy associated with the deformation of the ball. What the energy of the interaction of the load with the Earth and the energy of deformation have in common is that such energy can be converted into kinetic energy and vice versa.

However, not all processes are reversible. For example, when a hammer strikes a piece of lead, the kinetic energy of the hammer seems to disappear without a trace - the hammer hardly bounces after the blow. In this case, the kinetic energy of the hammer is converted into heat and its subsequent irreversible dissipation takes place.

Let us consider the concept of potential energy in more detail. The nature of potential energy is different, so there is no single formula for its calculation. Of all types of interaction, we most often meet with the gravitational interaction of the Earth and bodies located near its surface, therefore, first of all, we should dwell on the discussion of the features of gravitational interaction.

What is the formula for calculating the potential energy of the interaction of the Earth with bodies located near its surface? The answer lies in the swing of the pendulum. Pay attention (Fig. 1): points B, in which the kinetic energy is completely converted into a latent (potential) form, and point A,

where the kinetic energy of the pendulum is completely restored, lie at different heights above the Earth's surface. Huygens also found out that the height h of the pendulum's rise to point B is proportional to the square of its velocity v2max at the lowest point A. Leibniz estimated the amount of latent (potential) energy at points B by the mass m of the pendulum's load and the height h of its rise during oscillations. Accurate measurements of the maximum speed vmax and height h show that the equality is always satisfied:

where g  10 N/kg = 10 m/s2. If, in accordance with the law of conservation of energy, we assume that the entire kinetic energy of the pendulum is converted at points B into the energy of the gravitational interaction of its load with the Earth, then the energy of this interaction must be calculated by the formula:

A conditional agreement is hidden in this formula: the position of interacting bodies, at which the energy of their interaction En is conditionally considered equal to zero (zero level), is chosen so that in this position the height h = 0. But when choosing the zero level, physicists are guided only by the desire to simplify the solution as much as possible tasks. If for some reason it is convenient to assume that the potential energy is equal to zero at a point at a height h0  0, then the formula for the potential energy takes the form:

En \u003d mg (h - h0).

Consider the fall of a stone from a cliff (Fig. 2). It is necessary to determine how the kinetic energy Ek of the stone and the potential energy En of its interaction with the Earth change as it falls. Suppose that at the edge of the cliff (point A) the speed of the stone is zero.

When a stone falls, its friction against the air is small, so we can assume that there is no dissipation of energy and its transformation into heat. Therefore, according to the law of conservation of energy, when a stone falls, the sum of the kinetic and potential energy of the system of bodies Earth + stone does not change, i.e.

(Ek + En)|B = (Ek + E0)|A.

We note the following.

1. According to the condition of the problem at point A, the speed of the stone is zero, so Ek | A = 0.

2. It is convenient to choose the zero level of the potential energy of the interaction of the stone with the Earth in such a way as to simplify the solution of the problem to the utmost. Since only one fixed point is indicated - the edge of the rock A - it is reasonable to take it as the origin and put En | A = 0. Then total energy(Ek + En)|A = 0. Therefore, due to the law of conservation of energy, the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the stone and the Earth remains equal to zero at all points of the trajectory:

(Ek + En)|B = 0.

The sum of two non-zero numbers is equal to zero only if one of them is negative and the other is positive. We have already noted that kinetic energy cannot be negative. Therefore, from the equality (Ek + En)|B = 0 it follows that the potential energy of the interaction of a falling stone with the Earth is a negative value. This is due to the choice of the zero potential energy level. We took the edge of the rock as the zero reference point of the h-coordinate of the stone. All points through which the stone flies lie below the edge of the rock, and the values ​​of the coordinates h of these points lie below zero, i.e. they are negative. Therefore, according to the formula Ep = mgh, the energy Ep of the interaction of the falling stone with the Earth must also be negative.

From the equation of the law of conservation of energy Ек + Еп = 0 it follows that at any height h down from the edge of the rock, the kinetic energy of the stone is equal to its potential energy, taken with the opposite sign:

Ek \u003d -Ep \u003d -mgh

(it should be remembered that h is a negative value). Graphs of dependence of potential energy Ep and kinetic energy Ек on the coordinate h are shown in fig. 3.

It is not superfluous to immediately analyze the case when a stone is thrown up at point A with a certain vertical velocity v0. At the initial moment, the kinetic energy of the stone is Eк = mv02/2, and the potential energy, by agreement, is equal to zero. At an arbitrary point on the trajectory, the total energy is equal to the sum of the kinetic and potential energies mv2/2 + mgh. The law of conservation of energy is written as:

mv02/2 = mv2/2 + mgh.

Here h can have both positive and negative values, which corresponds to the movement of the stone up from the point of throwing or falling below point A. Thus, for certain values ​​of h, the potential energy is positive, and for others it is negative. This example should show the student the conditionality of attributing the potential energy of a certain sign.

After the students have been introduced to the above material, it is advisable to discuss the following questions with them:

1. Under what condition is the kinetic energy of the body equal to zero? potential energy of the body?

2. Explain whether the graph in fig. 3.

3. How does the kinetic energy of a tossed ball change? When does it decrease? increases?

4. Why, when a stone falls, its potential energy turned out to be negative, and when a boy rolls down a hill, it is considered positive?

Potential energy of a body in a gravitational field

The next step involves introducing students to the potential energy of the body in the gravitational field. The energy of interaction of a body with the gravitational field of the Earth is described by the formula En = mgh only if the gravitational field of the Earth can be considered homogeneous, independent of the coordinates. The gravitational field is determined by the law of universal gravitation:

where R is the radius vector drawn from the center of mass of the Earth (taken as the origin) to a given point (recall that in the law of gravitation, bodies are considered to be point and motionless). By analogy with electrostatics, this formula can be written as:

and call it the vector of the gravitational field strength at a given point. It is clear that this field changes with distance from the body creating the field. When can the gravitational field be considered homogeneous with sufficient accuracy? Obviously, this is possible in a region of space whose dimensions h are much smaller than the distance to the center of the field R. In other words, if you are considering a stone falling from the top floor of a house, you can safely ignore the difference in the value of the gravitational field on the top and bottom floors. However, when studying the motion of planets around the Sun, one cannot assume that the planet moves in a uniform field, and one should use the general law of gravity.

It is possible to derive a general formula for the potential energy of the gravitational interaction of bodies (but do not ask students to reproduce this conclusion, although, of course, they should know the final formula). For example, consider two fixed point bodies with masses m1 and m2 located at a distance R0 from each other (Fig. 4). Let us designate the energy of gravitational interaction of these bodies as En0. Let us further assume that the bodies approached a little to the distance R1. The energy of interaction of these bodies became Ep1. According to the law of conservation of energy:

Еп = Еп1 – Еп0 = Fdraught. cf s,

where Fdraught. cр is the value of the average gravitational force in the section s = R1 – R0 of the body moving in the direction of the force. According to the law of universal gravitation, the magnitude of the force is:

If the distances R1 and R0 differ little from each other, then the distance Rav2 can be replaced by the product R1R0. Then:

In this equality En1 corresponds, correspondence . Thus:

We have obtained a formula that indicates two features of the potential energy of gravitational interaction (it is also called the gravitational energy):

1. The formula itself already contains the choice of the zero level of the potential energy of gravity, namely: the energy of the gravitational interaction of bodies vanishes when the distance between the considered bodies is infinitely large. Please note that such a choice of the zero value of the energy of the gravitational interaction of bodies has a clear physical interpretation: when the bodies are infinitely far away from each other, they practically cease to interact gravitationally.

2. Since any real distance, for example, between the Earth and a rocket, of course, the energy of gravitational interaction with such a choice of reference point is always negative.

On fig. Figure 5 shows a graph of the dependence of the energy of the gravitational interaction of the rocket with the Earth on the distance between the center of the Earth and the rocket. It reflects both features of the gravitational energy that we talked about: it shows that this energy is negative and increases towards zero as the distance between the Earth and the rocket increases.

Bond energy

The knowledge gained by students that energy can be both positive and negative should be applied in the study of the binding energy of particles of matter in its various states of aggregation. For example, students can be offered the following qualitative reasoning.

We have already seen that particles of matter always move randomly. It was by endowing particles with the ability for such movement that we were able to explain a number of natural phenomena. But then why don't tables and pencils, the walls of houses and ourselves scatter into separate particles?

We have to assume that the particles of matter interact, are attracted to each other. Only a sufficiently strong mutual attraction of particles is able to keep them close to each other in liquids and solids, preventing them from quickly scattering in different directions. But why, then, are particles in gases not held near each other, why do they scatter? Apparently, in gases, the interrelation of particles is insufficient for their retention.

In mechanics, to assess the interaction (connection) of bodies, we used such a physical quantity as the potential energy of interaction. In the kinetic theory of matter, the bond between particles of matter is characterized by the energy of their interaction Eb (this energy is not always potential). The fact that particles in liquids and solids hold each other, but not in gases, suggests that the binding energy of particles with each other in these media is different.

Gas. In a gas, the distance between particles is large and their coupling is weak. Particles occasionally collide with each other and with the walls of the vessel. Collisions are elastic in nature; total energy and total momentum are conserved. In the intervals between collisions, the particles move freely, i.e. do not interact. It is reasonable to assume that the interaction (bond) energy of particles in a gas is approximately equal to zero.

Liquid. In a liquid, the particles are brought together, they are partially in contact. Their mutual attraction is great and is characterized by the binding energy Eb(water). To tear off one molecule from the bulk of the liquid, it is necessary to do work A > 0. As a result, the molecule will become free, as in a gas, i.e. its binding energy can be considered equal to zero. According to the law of conservation of energy, Eb (water) + A \u003d 0, whence Eb (water) \u003d -A< 0.

To determine the numerical value of the energy Eb(water) of particles in water, let us turn to an experiment. Already household observations suggest: in order to evaporate water boiling in a kettle, you need to burn a certain amount of wood or gas. In other words, work needs to be done. Using a thermometer, you can verify that the temperature of boiling water and the temperature of the steam above it are the same. Consequently, the average energy of particle motion in boiling water and in steam is the same. thermal energy, transferred to the boiling water from the fuel, is converted into the interaction energy of the particles of the evaporating water. This means that the energy Eb of particles in boiling water is less than in water vapor. But in a pair, Eb(steam) = 0; therefore, the interaction energy of particles in a liquid is less than zero, i.e. negative.

Calorimeter measurements show that to evaporate 1 kg of boiling water at normal atmospheric pressure, about 2.3  106 J of energy must be transferred to it. Part of this energy (approximately 0.2  106 J) is expended so that the resulting water vapor can displace air particles from a thin layer above the surface of the liquid. The rest of the energy (2.1  106 J) is used to increase the binding energy of water particles during their transition from liquid to vapor (Fig. 6). Calculations show that 1 kg of water contains 3.2  1025 particles. Dividing the energy 2.1  106 J by 3.2  1025, we get: the binding energy Eb of each water particle with the rest of the particles during its transition from liquid to vapor increases by 6.6  10–20 J.

Solid. To melt and turn ice into water, you need to do work or transfer a certain amount of heat to the ice. The binding energy of water molecules in the solid phase Eb< 0, причем эта энергия по модулю больше, чем энергия связи молекул воды в жидкой phase. When ice melts, its temperature remains at 0 °C; the water formed during melting has the same temperature. Therefore, in order to transfer a substance from a solid to a liquid state, it is necessary to increase the interaction energy of its particles. To melt 1 kg of ice that has already begun to melt, it is necessary to expend 3.3  105 J of energy (Fig. 7). Almost all of this energy is used to increase the binding energy of particles during their transition from ice to water. Sharing energy

3.3  105 J for the number of 3.2  1025 particles contained in 1 kg of ice, we find that the interaction energy of ice particles is 10–20 J less than in water.

So, the interaction energy of vapor particles is equal to zero. In water, the binding energy of each of its particles with other particles is approximately 6.6  10–20 J less than in steam, i.e. Eb(water) = –6.6  10–20 J. In ice, the binding energy of each particle with all other ice particles is 1.0  10–20 J less than in water (and, accordingly, 6.6  10– 20 J + 1.0  10–20 J = 7.6  10–20 J less than in water vapor). This means that in ice Eb(ice) = –7.6  10–20 J.

Consideration of the features of the energy of interaction of particles of matter in various states of aggregation is important for understanding the transformation of energy during the transitions of matter from one state of aggregation to another.

Let us give, in particular, examples of questions that students can now answer without much difficulty.

1. Water boils at a constant temperature, absorbing energy from the flame of a gas burner. What happens with this?

A) The energy of movement of water molecules increases;

B) the energy of interaction of water molecules increases;

C) the energy of movement of water molecules decreases;

D) the energy of interaction of water molecules decreases.

(Answer: B.)

2.When melting ice:

A) the kinetic energy of a piece of ice increases;

B) the internal energy of ice increases;

C) the potential energy of a piece of ice decreases;

D) the internal energy of ice decreases.

(Answer: B.)

So far, we have considered the interaction energy of bodies attracted to each other. When studying electrostatics, it is useful to discuss with students the question of whether the interaction energy of particles is positive or negative if they repel each other. With mutual repulsion of particles, there is no need to impart energy to them in order to move them far from each other. The interaction energy is converted into the energy of the moving particles and decreases to zero with increasing distance between the particles. In this case, the interaction energy is a positive value. The revealed features of the interaction energy can be fixed when discussing the following issues:

1. Is the interaction energy of two oppositely charged balls positive or negative? Justify your answer.

2. Is the interaction energy of two like-charged balls positive or negative? Justify your answer.

3. Two magnets approach with the same poles. Is the energy of their interaction increasing or decreasing?

Communication energy in the microcosm

According to quantum mechanics, an atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. In the frame of reference associated with the nucleus, the total energy of an atom is the sum of the energy of the movement of electrons around the nucleus, the energy of the Coulomb interaction of electrons with a positively charged nucleus, and the energy of the Coulomb interaction of electrons with each other. Consider the simplest of atoms, the hydrogen atom.

It is believed that the total energy of an electron is equal to the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy of the Coulomb interaction with the nucleus. According to the Bohr model, the total energy of an electron in a hydrogen atom can only take on a certain set of values:

where E0 is expressed in terms of the world constants and the mass of the electron. It is more convenient to measure the numerical values ​​of E(n) not in joules, but in electron volts. The first allowed values ​​are:

E(1) = –13.6 eV (energy of the ground, most stable state of an electron);

E(2) = –3.4 eV;

E(3) = –1.52 eV.

It is convenient to mark the entire range of allowed values ​​of the total energy of the hydrogen atom with dashes on the vertical energy axis (Fig. 8). Formulas for calculating the possible values ​​of electron energy for atoms of other chemical elements are complex, because Atoms have many electrons that interact not only with the nucleus, but also with each other.

Atoms combine to form molecules. In molecules, the picture of the motion and interaction of electrons and atomic nuclei is much more complicated than in atoms. Accordingly, the set of possible values ​​of internal energy changes and becomes more complicated. The possible values ​​of the internal energy of any atom and molecule have some features.

We have already found out the first feature: the energy of an atom is quantized, i.e. can only take on a discrete set of values. The atoms of each substance have their own set of energy values.

The second feature is that all possible values ​​of E(n) of the total energy of electrons in atoms and molecules are negative. This feature is associated with the choice of the zero energy level of interaction between the electrons of an atom and its nucleus. It is generally accepted that the interaction energy of an electron with a nucleus is equal to zero when the electron is removed to a large distance and the Coulomb attraction of the electron to the nucleus is negligible. But in order to completely tear off an electron from the nucleus, you need to spend some work, transfer it to the nucleus + electron system. In other words, in order for the interaction energy of an electron with a nucleus to become equal to zero, it must be increased. And this means that the initial energy of interaction between the electron and the nucleus is less than zero, i.e. negative.

The third feature is that made in Fig. 8, the marks of possible values ​​of the internal energy of an atom break off at E = 0. This does not mean that the energy of the electron + nucleus system cannot, in principle, be positive. But when it reaches zero, the system ceases to be an atom. After all, at a value of E = 0, the electron is removed from the nucleus, and instead of a hydrogen atom, there are an electron and a nucleus that are not connected with each other.

If the detached electron continues to move with kinetic energy Ek, then the total energy of the system of no longer interacting particles ion + electron can take on any positive values ​​E = 0 + Ek.

Issues for discussion

1. What terms make up the internal energy of an atom?

2. Why did we consider the energy of an atom only on the example of a hydrogen atom?

3. What conclusions about the features of the internal energy of an atom follow from its quantum mechanical model?

4. Why do we consider the internal energy of an atom or molecule to be negative?

5. Can the energy of the ion + electron group be positive?

Acquaintance with the internal energy of an atom will allow not only to consolidate knowledge about the possibility of negative values ​​of potential energy, but also to explain a number of phenomena, for example, the phenomenon of the photoelectric effect or the emission of light by atoms. Finally, the knowledge gained will allow discussing with students very interest Ask on the interaction of nucleons in the nucleus.

It has been established that the atomic nucleus consists of nucleons (protons and neutrons). A proton is a particle weighing 2000 times the mass of an electron, carrying a positive electric charge (+1). As is known from electrodynamics, charges of the same sign repel each other. Therefore, the electromagnetic interaction pushes the protons apart. Why does the nucleus not fall apart into its component parts? Back in 1919, bombarding the nuclei with -particles, E. Rutherford found out that in order to knock out a proton from the nucleus, the -particle must have an energy of about 7 MeV. This is several hundred thousand times more energy needed to detach an electron from an atom!

As a result of numerous experiments, it was found that the particles inside the nucleus are connected by a fundamentally new type of interaction. Its intensity is hundreds of times greater than the intensity of the electromagnetic interaction, so it was called the strong interaction. This interaction has an important feature: it has a short range and “turns on” only when the distance between nucleons does not exceed 10–15 m. This explains the small size of all atomic nuclei (no more than 10–14 m).

The proton-neutron model of the nucleus makes it possible to calculate the binding energy of nucleons in the nucleus. Recall that, according to measurements, it is approximately equal to –7 MeV. Imagine that 4 protons and 4 neutrons combined to form a beryllium nucleus. The mass of each neutron is mn = 939.57 MeV, and the mass of each proton is mp = 938.28 MeV (here we use the system of units adopted in nuclear physics, in which the mass is measured not in kilograms, but in equivalent energy units recalculated according to the Einstein relation E0 = mc2). Consequently, the total rest energy of 4 protons and 4 neutrons before they combine into a nucleus is 7511.4 MeV. The rest energy of the Be nucleus is 7454.7 MeV. It can be represented as the sum of the rest energy of the nucleons themselves (7511.4 MeV) and the binding energy of nucleons with each other Eb. That's why:

7454.7 MeV = 7511.4 MeV + Eb.

From here we get:

En \u003d 7454.7 MeV -7511.4 MeV \u003d -56.7 MeV.

This energy is distributed to all 8 nucleons of the beryllium nucleus. Consequently, each of them accounts for approximately –7 MeV, which follows from the experiments. We have again obtained that the binding energy of mutually attracted particles is a negative value.

V.Yu. Mishin

Tuberculin diagnostics- a diagnostic test to determine the presence of a specific sensitization of the human body to MBT, due either to infection or artificially - inoculation of the BCG vaccine strain.

Old tuberculin Koch(Alt Tuberculin Koch - ATK) is a water-glycerin extract of human and bovine MBT tuberculous culture grown in meat-peptone broth with the addition of 4% glycerin solution.

However, the tuberculin obtained in this way contains protein derivatives of meat and peptone, which are part of the medium, which leads to the occurrence of non-specific reactions that make diagnosis difficult. Therefore, ATK in last years finds limited use. Produced in ampoules of 1 ml, which contains 100 OOO TE.

More specific and purified from ballast substances is purified protein derivative(Purified Protein Derivative - PPD), obtained by American scientists F. Seibert and S. Glenn (F. Seibert, S. Glenn) in 1934. This preparation is purified by ultrafiltration, precipitated with trichloroacetic acid, washed with alcohol and ether and dried in a vacuum from a frozen state, a filtrate killed by heating cultures of Mycobacterium tuberculosis of human and bovine types.

In our country, domestic dry purified tuberculin was manufactured in 1939 under the direction of MA Linnikova at the Leningrad Research Institute of Vaccines and Serums, therefore this tuberculin is called PPD-L.

PPD-L is available in two forms:

• purified tuberculin standard dilution- ready-to-use colorless transparent liquid in ampoules of 3 ml with an activity of 2 TU in 0.1 ml. It is a solution of tuberculin in 0.85% sodium chloride solution with the addition of tween-80, which is a detergent and ensures the stability of the biological activity of the drug, and 0.01% chinosol as a preservative. Tuberculin standard solutions are also prepared, containing 0.1 ml of a solution of 5 TE, UTE, 100 TE;
• dry purified tuberculin in the form of a white powder in 50,000 TU ampoules in one package with a solvent - carbolic saline.

Activity any tuberculin expressed in tuberculin units (THOSE). The national standard for tuberculin PPD-L was approved in 1963; 1 TE of domestic tuberculin contains 0.00006 mg of dry preparation. It is the tuberculin unit that is the basis for regulating the strength of the tuberculin test.

According to its biochemical composition, tuberculin is a complex compound, including proteins (tuberculoproteins), polysaccharides, lipid fractions and nucleic acid. The active principle of tuberculin are tuberculoproteins.

From an immunological point of view, tuberculin is a hapten (incomplete antigen), i.e. it does not cause the production of specific antibodies, but in an infected organism it initiates an antigen-antibody response, similar to a reaction to a live or killed MBT culture.

It has now been established that the body's reactions to tuberculin are a classic manifestation of the immunological phenomenon of HRT, which develops as a result of the interaction of an antigen
(tuberculin) with effector lymphocytes that have specific receptors on their surface.

At the same time, some of the lymphocytes die, releasing proteolytic enzymes that cause a damaging effect on tissues. An inflammatory reaction occurs not only at the injection site, but also around the tuberculous foci. During the destruction of sensitized cells, active substances with pyrogenic properties are released.

In response to the introduction of tuberculin into the body of infected and TB patients develop pricks, general and focal reactions. The body's response to tuberculin depends on the dose and site of administration. Thus, a local (prick) reaction occurs with cutaneous (Pirke test), intradermal (Mantoux test) administration of the drug, and the appearance of local, general and focal reactions occurs with subcutaneous administration (Koch test).

Prick reaction characterized by the appearance at the injection site of tuberculin papule (infiltrate) and hyperemia. With hyperergic reactions, the formation of vesicles, bulls, lymphangitis, necrosis is possible. Measuring the diameter of the infiltrate allows you to accurately assess the reaction and reflect the degree of sensitivity of the body to the amount of tuberculin used.

Pathomorphology of the tuberculin reaction in the initial stage (the first 24 hours) is manifested by edema and exudation, in more late dates(72 h) - mononuclear reaction. In hyperergic reactions with severe necrosis, specific elements with epithelioid and giant cells are found at the injection site.

General reaction of the infected organism on the introduction of tuberculin is manifested by a deterioration in the general condition, headache, arthralgia, fever, changes in hemogram, biochemical, immunological parameters.

Focal reaction characterized by increased perifocal inflammation around the tuberculous focus. In the pulmonary process, a focal reaction is manifested by an increase in cough, chest pain, an increase in the amount of sputum discharge, hemoptysis, and radiologically - an increase in inflammatory changes in the area of ​​a specific lesion; with kidney tuberculosis - the appearance of leukocytes and MBT in the urine; with fistulous forms of peripheral lymphadenitis - increased suppuration, etc.

The sensitivity of the human body to tuberculin can be different: negative ( anergy), when the body does not respond to the introduction of tuberculin; weak ( hypoergy), moderate ( normergy) and pronounced ( hyperergy).

The intensity of reactions to tuberculin depends on the massiveness and virulence of the infection (the presence of contact with a patient with tuberculosis, infection with highly virulent MBT strains from a dying patient, etc.), body resistance, dose, method and frequency of administration.

If tuberculin is used in large doses and at short intervals, then the body's sensitivity to it increases (Booster effect).

The absence of the body's reaction to tuberculin (anergy) is divided into primary - in persons not infected with MBT, and secondary - a condition accompanied by a loss of tuberculin sensitivity in persons infected and ill with tuberculosis.

Secondary anergy develops in lymphogranulomatosis, sarcoidosis, many acute infectious diseases (measles, rubella, scarlet fever, whooping cough, etc.), beriberi, cachexia, progressive course of tuberculosis, febrile conditions, treatment with hormones, cytostatics, during pregnancy.

On the contrary, under conditions of exogenous superinfection, in the presence of helminthic invasion, chronic foci of infection, multiple caries, calcifications in the lungs and intrathoracic lymph nodes, hyperthyroidism, tuberculin tests are enhanced.

Tuberculin diagnostics is divided into mass and individual. Under mass tuberculin diagnostics imply examination of healthy groups of children and adolescents using an intradermal Mantoux test with 2 TEs of PPD-L. Under individual- carrying out differential diagnostics of tuberculosis and nonspecific diseases, elucidation of the nature of tuberculin sensitivity, determination of the activity of specific changes.

The goals of mass tuberculin diagnostics are:

1. identification of persons newly infected with MBT (“turn” of tuberculin samples);
2. identification of persons with hyperergic and increasing reactions to tuberculin;
3. selection of contingents for anti-tuberculosis vaccination with BCG vaccine in children aged 2 months and older who did not receive vaccination at the maternity hospital, and for BCG revaccination;
4. early diagnosis of tuberculosis in children and adolescents;
5. determination of epidemiological indicators for tuberculosis (infection of the population with MBT, annual risk of infection with MBT).

For mass tuberculin diagnostics, only a single intradermal tuberculin Mantoux test with 2 TU PPD-L is used.

Mantoux test technique. For the Mantoux test, disposable one-gram tuberculin syringes are used. 0.2 ml of tuberculin is drawn into the syringe from the ampoule, then the solution is released to the 0.1 ml mark.

The inner surface of the middle third of the forearm is treated with 70 ° alcohol and dried with sterile cotton wool. The needle is inserted with the cut upwards into the upper layers of the stretched skin (intradermally) parallel to its surface. After inserting the needle hole into the skin, 0.1 ml of a solution (2 TU PPD-L) is injected from the syringe, i.e. 1 dose. With the right technique, a papule is formed in the skin in the form of a "lemon crust" with a size of at least 7-9 mm in diameter, whitish in color.

Mantoux test technique. The evaluation of the Mantoux test is carried out after 72 hours by measuring (mm) the diameter of the infiltrate transverse to the axis of the forearm.

When setting up a Mantoux test, the reaction is considered:

• negative - the complete absence of infiltration and hyperemia, or the presence of only a trace from the injection (infiltration with a diameter of 0-1 mm);
• doubtful - the presence of an infiltrate of 2-4 mm or only hyperemia of any size;
• positive - the presence of an infiltrate with a diameter of 5 mm or more;
• hyperergic - the presence of an infiltrate with a diameter of 17 mm or more in children and adolescents, in adults - 21 mm or more. In the presence of vesicles, necrosis, lymphangitis, regardless of the size of the infiltrate, the reaction is considered as hyperergic.

The Mantoux test with 2 TU PPD-L is given to children and adolescents annually, starting from 12 months, regardless of the previous result. The test is performed by a specially trained nurse. All test results are recorded in the medical record.

With systematic tuberculin diagnosis, the doctor can analyze the dynamics of tuberculin tests and identify the moment of MBT infection - the transition of a previously negative test to a positive one (not associated with BCG vaccination), the so-called "turn" of tuberculin tests; an increase in tuberculin sensitivity and the development of hyperergy to tuberculin.

All children and adolescents from the above risk groups, which are identified by the results of mass tuberculin diagnostics, are under dispensary registration with a phthisiatrician for 1-2 years. They are examined, including an X-ray of the respiratory organs (according to the indications of longitudinal tomograms), general clinical blood and urine tests, and their environment is examined for the purpose of early diagnosis of the disease and the search for the source of their infection. In order to prevent the development of the disease, infected children and adolescents are given prophylactic (preventive) treatment.

At the age of 7 and 14 years, children who have a negative Mantoux test with 2 TU PPD-L and no contraindications to the introduction of the vaccine must be revaccinated with the BCG vaccine in order to create artificial active anti-tuberculosis immunity in them.

Goals of mass tuberculin diagnostics:

• differential diagnosis of post-vaccination and infectious allergy to tuberculin;
• differential diagnosis of tuberculosis and other diseases;
• determination of the threshold of individual sensitivity to tuberculin;
• determination of the activity of the tuberculosis process;
• evaluation of the effectiveness of anti-tuberculosis treatment.

In individual tuberculin diagnostics, in addition to the Mantoux test with 2 TU PPD-L, the Mantoux test with various doses of tuberculin, the Koch test, etc. are used.

Post-vaccination immunity (post-vaccination allergy). In the conditions of mandatory mass vaccination of tuberculosis, many children and adolescents have anti-tuberculosis immunity due to the introduction of the vaccine, and also respond positively to
tuberculin (post-vaccination allergy).

When deciding what exactly is associated with positive tuberculin sensitivity, one should take into account the nature of the test itself, the time elapsed after the introduction of the BCG vaccine, the number and size of scars from BCG, and the presence of contact with a patient with tuberculosis.

For post-vaccination tuberculin sensitivity characterized by a gradual decrease in the size of the infiltrate every year and the transition in 2-3-4 years after vaccination into doubtful and negative results. The papule is often flat, ill-defined, averaging 7–10 mm in diameter, and does not leave long-term pigmentation behind.

When MBT is infected persistent preservation or even increase in sensitivity to tuberculin is observed. The papule is high, bright, well-defined, persists for a long time age spot. The average diameter of the infiltrate is 12 mm; the presence of a hyperergic reaction testifies in favor of MBT infection.

Koch test It is used during individual tuberculin diagnostics, most often for the purpose of differential diagnosis of tuberculosis with other diseases and determining its activity. Tuberculin in the Koch test is administered subcutaneously, most often starting with 20 TU. With a negative result, increase the dose to 50 IU, and then up to 100 IU. If there is no reaction to the subcutaneous injection of 100 TU, then the diagnosis of tuberculosis is removed.

When setting up the Koch test, local (in the area of ​​tuberculin injection), focal (in the area of ​​the focus of a specific lesion) and the general reaction of the body, as well as blood changes (hemotuberculin and proteinotuberculin tests) are taken into account. Preliminary blood and plasma parameters are determined before the introduction of tuberculin and 48 hours after it.

• The general reaction is characterized by an increase in body temperature by 0.5 ° C, symptoms of intoxication;
• focal - exacerbation of tuberculous changes;
• local - the formation of an infiltrate at the injection site of tuberculin with a diameter of 10-20 mm.

Hemotuberculin test is considered positive if there is an increase in ESR by 6 mm per hour or more, an increase in the number of leukocytes by 1000 or more, a shift in the leukocyte formula to the left, a decrease in lymphocytes by 10% or more.

Protein tuberculin test is assessed as positive if there is a decrease in albumin and an increase in a- and y-globulins by 10% of the initial data. The Koch test is also combined with immunological tests of blast transformation, macrophage migration, etc.

Koch's test is considered positive if any three indicators or more change. It should be remembered that the focal reaction is of the greatest importance in the evaluation of this sample.

In many problems, one-dimensional motion of a body is considered, the potential energy of which is a function of only one variable (for example, the coordinates X), i.e. P=P(x). The graph of potential energy dependence on some argument is called potential curve. The analysis of potential curves makes it possible to determine the nature of the motion of the body.

We will consider only conservative systems, i.e., systems in which there are no mutual transformations of mechanical energy into other forms.

Then the energy conservation law in the form (13.3) is valid. Consider a graphical representation of the potential energy for a body in a uniform gravity field and for an elastically deformed body.

Potential energy of a body of mass T, elevated to a height h above the Earth's surface, according to (12.7), П(h) = mgh. The graph of this dependence P = P( h) is a straight line passing through the origin of coordinates (Fig. 15), the angle of inclination of which to the axis h the more, the greater the body weight (since tg \u003d mg).

Let the total energy of the body be E(its graph is a straight line parallel to the axis h). On high h the body has a potential energy P, which is determined by the segment of the vertical enclosed between the point h on the x-axis and graph P( h). Naturally, the kinetic energy T is given by the ordinate between the P(h) graph and the horizontal line HER. From fig. 15 it follows that if h=h max , then T= 0 and P = E= mgh max , i.e., the potential energy becomes maximum and equal to the total energy.

From the above graph, you can find the speed of the body at a height h:

mv 2 /2=mgh max -mgh, where

v= 2g(h max -h).

The dependence of the potential energy of elastic deformation П =kx 2 /2 from deformation X has the form of a parabola (Fig. 16), where the graph of the given total energy of the body E - straight, parallel to the axis

abscissa x, a values T and P are defined in the same way as in Fig. 15. From fig. 16 it follows that with increasing deformation X the potential energy of the body increases, and the kinetic energy decreases. The abscissa x max determines the maximum possible tensile strain of the body, and -x max - the maximum possible compressive strain of the body. If x=±x max, then T=0 and P=E = kx 2 max /2, i.e., the potential energy becomes maximum and equal to the total energy.

From the analysis of the graph in fig. 16 it follows that with the total energy of the body equal to E, the body cannot move to the right of x max and to the left of -x max, since the kinetic energy cannot be a negative value and, therefore, the potential energy cannot be greater than the total. In this case, the body is said to be in potential well with coordinates

Xmax xxmax .

In the general case, the potential curve can have a rather complex form, for example, with several alternating maxima and minima (Fig. 17). Let's analyze this potential curve.

If E is the given total energy of the particle, then the particle can only be located where П(х) E, i.e. in areas I and III. The particle cannot move from region I to III and vice versa, since it is prevented by potential barriercdg, whose width is equal to the interval of values X, under which E<П, а его вы­сота определяется разностью П max -E. In order for the particle to be able to overcome the potential barrier, it needs to impart additional energy equal to or greater than the barrier height. In area 1 particle with total energy E is "locked" in a potential well ABC and oscillates between points with coordinates x a And X C .

At the point IN with coordinate x 0 (Fig. 17) the potential energy of the particle is minimal. Since the force acting on the particle (see §12) F X =-d P / d x (P is a function of only one coordinate), and the condition for the minimum potential energy d P/ d x=0, then at the point INF x = 0. When the particle is displaced from the position x 0 (both left and right) it experiences a restoring force, so the position x 0 is the position stable balance. These conditions are also satisfied for the point X" 0 (for P max). However, this point corresponds to the position unstable balance, since when a particle is displaced from a position X" 0 there is a force that seeks to remove it from this position.