Question. The class essence of education in a slave-owning society
The development of the modern world school is a multilateral, large-scale process.
The school is changing its appearance, approaching the level of social, political, pedagogical requirements of the era of technical and technological revolution. Among the important positive trends in the development of world pedagogy and schools are 1) a course towards the democratization of school systems; 2).differentiation of education; 3) humanistic orientation of education; 4).modernization of the classroom system.
In the second half of the 1900s. A wave of reforms swept through leading foreign countries, as a result of which education systems underwent important changes. The terms of compulsory free education have been extended, and there is an intermediate level between elementary and complete secondary schools. Upon completion of primary and incomplete secondary education, students are distributed into three main educational streams: a complete general education school, which focuses on theoretical training and further education at the university; secondary school with an emphasis on preparation for studying at a technical university; professional educational institutions.
School systems are characterized by the presence of private educational institutions. They are usually paid, and some of them are expensive and privileged. In the West, almost all private schools belong to congregations of various churches. In most leading countries of the world, public educational institutions are separated from the church and religion (USA, France, Japan). In these countries the teaching of religion is a private affair of the citizens. But in England and Germany, theology is included in the standard programs of general education.
In the leading countries of the world in the last quarter of the 20th century there was a sharp expansion of the network of higher education. The social composition of the students has noticeably changed, it has become more democratic. The content of university and non-university higher education programs is changing. The growth in the number of higher education institutions is also accompanied by negative costs, primarily a decrease in the quality of education. To solve this problem, the mechanism of state control over the activities of higher education is being reformed. In almost all leading countries of the world, the school is a priority object of financing.
Maintaining school education at a sufficiently high level is an important condition for the dynamic development of society. Foreign highly developed industrial states have achieved impressive success in schooling. They are steadily rising average (median) level of education.
School programs are subject to constant changes and adjustments.
Several types of curricula coexist in a comprehensive school. Traditional type - required programs. There are no more than ten compulsory courses in a general education school. Much more numerous special programs addressed to one or another part of the students: electives, elective courses, programs of special educational institutions. Individual programs can move from compulsory to special, depending on the purpose and levels of education, for example, vocational training programs. Along with this, the so-called integrative programs. A classic example of an integrative course is the science program in elementary school, which includes the beginnings of various knowledge.
In the second half of the XX century. The world school has embarked on reforms in its educational programs. These reforms are aimed at making education more flexible, capable of updating "School explosion" (the appearance in the leading countries of the world of mass high school) prompted the development and creation of a qualitatively different system of differentiation of education and training. The main form of differentiation is the distribution by different types of educational institutions, as well as into profiles and streams within one school, into groupings in the classroom.
By the end of the 20th century, the leading countries of the world saw the formation of an incomplete secondary educational institution, within the walls of which they began to differentiate education: a junior high school (USA and Japan), an integrated school (England), general school(Germany), - a single college (France).
Interest in teaching gifted, talented children and adolescents has noticeably increased in the world school. There were special schools for the gifted. They teach more rich programs. Education is designed to reveal the young talent, to help show abilities. In addition, so-called advanced classes are sometimes organized for talented children in regular schools. The policy of purposeful identification and training of talented schoolchildren is objectively necessary, since it contributes to the formation of the future color of the nation. More and more attention is being paid to the education of children with disabilities and children with negative mental development. This is an important activity of the modern school.
It should also be said about compensatory education. It was organized to eliminate poor progress, unsatisfactory preparation of students. The practice of compensatory education involves the cooperation of the school and the family, the involvement of specialists in psychology and orientation, and an individual approach. The features of such training are additional classes, low class occupancy, the presence of adaptation classes, repeated training in the same class, etc. The basis of education in modern school is the spiritual, moral formation of personality.
In the West, the so-called behavioral method of education. It provides for a free game environment, partnership of pupils and mentors.
Self-management of students is important for the education of independence and activity. The traditional form of student self-government- a system in which students help teachers maintain discipline in the classroom, coordinate extracurricular activities. Usually such a system takes the form of student councils.
Student self-government did not justify the hopes for a sharp improvement in the results of education. For this reason, it is replaced by school boards, which include students, teachers, parents, representatives of the administration and the public. The primary areas of their activity are the involvement of students in the current life of the school, the development of independence among students, the ability to defend their own views and requirements, and the development of a culture of communication. Important changes in education occurred in connection with planetary political changes. The scale of education in the spirit of peace has increased. Projects aimed at effective international education are being implemented. One of these projects is the educational institutions of the international baccalaureate, the purpose of which is to educate in the spirit of mutual understanding between peoples. In 1996, more than 600 educational institutions from 83 countries participated in the project.
The world school pays considerable attention to the education of political culture ( civic education). To do this, the program includes training role-playing games("Elections", "Strike", "Court", etc.), a large place in the educational process is given to socio-political disciplines. In France, Germany, Japan in the 1980s-1990s. a civics course was added to the high school curriculum.
In schools in many countries, special classes are held on moral education. Your place in moral education religion continues. Bans on confessional education do not mean a rejection of the universal ideals laid down in world religions.
In response to the needs of the time, new disciplines appear in the curricula of the world school, which are based on anti-drug, anti-alcohol, and environmental topics. The role of experimental schools as a center for searching for other content, forms, and methods of school education and upbringing has increased markedly. The organization of schools - pilots has become one of the important areas of state school policy.
In the second half of the XX century. a new important stage began in the introduction of technical means into the school, which are the fruits of the scientific and technological revolution, and then the technological revolution.
The latest technical means have become a prerequisite for the educational process. Among them, computers and video systems turned out to be a priority.
New technical teaching aids have proved their indispensability. They are one of the guarantees for the modernization of the educational process, they serve as a powerful source of information, as well as a means of self-education and adjustment of the classroom system.
Mass media play a huge role in education in the modern world - the so-called parallel school. Teachers consider it necessary to seriously consider the creative and destructive possibilities of the parallel school.
Education in a primitive society.
Society is classless, so all members of society receive an equal education.
The purpose of education and training is preparing children for life, for survival in difficult conditions.
Organization of training and education: children are brought up and trained in the course of their direct participation in the affairs of adults. Adults include children in the activities available to them (cooking, caring for the sick, participating in hunting, etc.). children are the common property of the whole tribe. Later, the first "type of educational institutions" appears - Youth Houses, in which boys and girls are taught separately. Children acquire, under the guidance of experienced tribal elders, skills appropriate to their gender and future function in the tribe. At the end of the training, young people are subjected to tests (initiations), those who have passed these tests are initiated into full members of the tribe and are already considered adults.
The main methods of training and education: oral transmission of information (through the stories of the elders, epics, legends, etc.); showing, exercising children in a variety of skills.
There is no punishment system.
slave society.
A division into antagonistic classes appeared in society (the class of slave owners and the class of slaves), upbringing and education from this stage begin to have a class character.
Let's look at this in ancient Greece.
The two ancient Greek states of Laconia (the capital of Sparta) and Attica (the capital of Athens) had many common features in organizing the upbringing and education of the younger generation:
both states were slave-owning, so the system of private and public education served only the children of slave-owners. Slaves were regarded as "talking tools" and were brought up, as in primitive society, by the parents themselves, in the process of including children in the feasible labor of their parents. There were no educational institutions for them.
Many common features were observed in the upbringing of the children of slave owners, although the systems of upbringing and educating children themselves differed in goals, content and organization, which was explained by the different historical conditions of life in these two states. Only boys were enrolled in schools, starting from the age of 7. The girls were brought up at home in the women's half of the house (genikee).
The purpose of upbringing and education- educating young people the ability to win, endurance, unquestioning obedience. (i.e. raising a warrior)
Organization of education:
From 7 to 18 years old, young men attended AGELLA educational institutions, where the content of education was hardening, military physical exercises, teaching music and singing, they learned writing and reading very limitedly.
From 18 to 20 - EPHEBIA
Military-political education was carried out here: training in the construction of military fortifications, control of military vehicles, military service was carried out and the participation of young men in public festivities and theatrical performances.
feudal society
Society is divided into antagonistic classes: the ruling classes (clergy and feudal lords) and the oppressed classes (peasants and artisans).
Education in all types of educational institutions is permeated with religion, teaching is conducted in Latin, only boys study in schools, the period of study is not limited.
There is a whole system of church schools:
§ Monastic schools (at monasteries young men are prepared for monastic vows) and cathedral (cathedral) schools, for richer students, preparing future clergy.
Monastic and cathedral schools are divided into internal and external. In internal, closed schools, children of the clergy and feudal lords study the "7 liberal arts": grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. In the outer monastic and cathedral schools (teaching the laity), reading, writing, counting and church singing are taught.
§ Parish schools (at each church parish. Not only children, but also adults can study here.) The content of education in these schools was the reading of prayers in Latin, church singing, and less often teaching writing and counting.
In the cities, guild schools are opened at the expense of artisans, and at the expense of merchants, guild schools for the children of artisans and merchants. The content of education in these schools was reading, writing, counting and religion.
Education of the common people:
The bulk of the people did not receive education in schools. Parents raised their children in everyday work or gave their children "to the people" to learn some craft.
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1. Education, school and the emergence of pedagogical thought in a slave society
As a result of further historical development, the primitive communal system was replaced by a new social formation - the slave-owning system. In the ancient East, the first class societies arose and the foundations of material and spiritual culture were laid, which was to some extent accepted and processed by the peoples of Greece and Rome.
2. Shkola in the countries of the ancient East
In the countries of the ancient East, special institutions (schools) increasingly became the privilege of the ruling groups of the population.
In ancient times, a school was born and strengthened in India. For thousands of years, the so-called communal school, created by communities of simple farmers, has preserved its existence there. Along with it, schools in cities, at temples for the noble and rich, were of great importance.
Schools also developed in Asia Minor and Africa (Egypt). In a number of states, there was agriculture associated with artificial irrigation, using such natural phenomena as periodic floods of rivers.
People observed natural phenomena, learned to predict floods, gained experience in building dams and various structures. The beginnings of the sciences appeared: astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, medicine; the simplest machines began to be created for buildings (gates, "tacks", etc.). All this information was concentrated in the hands of the ruling groups of the population, often clothed in mysticism and mystery. In addition to closed priestly or court schools, schools also arose for the needs of managing the state and the economy - these are schools for scribes, schools for employees, etc. Gradually, the method of writing also changed in some countries. So, for example, in Egypt, in priestly schools, complex hieroglyphic ("sacred") writing was taught, and in schools for scribes, a simplified (hieratic) writing was used.
When teaching writing and counting, some facilitating learning techniques were used, for example, counting on multi-colored pebbles, simplified calculation methods, etc. Finger counting was widespread among all peoples.
In ancient China, there were lower and higher schools. In higher schools, the children of the privileged learned to read and write in a complex hieroglyphic way, studied philosophy and morality (of a religious nature), the works of writers and poets. Some information on astronomy was also reported there.
In the most ancient manuscripts (China, India, Egypt, etc.) there are valuable thoughts about education, about the requirements for a teacher and pupil.
Discipline, especially in scribal schools, was severe, and corporal punishment was widely used. “The ear of a boy is on his back,” says an ancient Egyptian manuscript. Most children ordinary people and slaves did not receive training in schools; the basic knowledge and skills related to work and norms of behavior were communicated to them by their parents and those around them.
3. Education, school and teacherical thought in ancient greece
Ancient Greece is a country that consisted of a number of small slave-owning states (polises). The most influential of these were Laconia, with the chief city of Sparta, and Attica, with the chief city of Athens. In each of these states, special education systems have developed: Spartan and Athenian. The difference between these two systems was due to some features of the economic and political development and the state of culture of the states. But both states were slave-owning states, and the system of public education served only the children of slave-owners. Slaves throughout Greece were regarded only as "talking tools." They were deprived of all human rights, including the right to study in schools.
Laconia (Sparta) occupied a territory in the southeastern part of the Peloponnese, on the coast of which there were no convenient harbors. The country was dominated by agriculture, based on the labor of slaves. The small, semi-free, underprivileged population was mostly artisans. Nine thousand families of slave owners held over 250 thousand enslaved population under their rule. The exploitation of slaves in Sparta was brutal, and the slaves often revolted. The life of the Spartans was subject to the main requirement - to be in a state of military readiness, to show cruelty and violence against slaves.
The upbringing was carried out by the state, it pursued the task of preparing warriors from the children of the Spartans, steadfast and hardened, future slave owners.
From the age of 7, Spartiate boys, who had lived at home until that time, were placed in a special kind of state educational institutions called agella, where they were brought up and trained until the age of 18. Their leader was a person known to the authorities - a pedon. Particular attention was paid to the physical education of adolescents: they were tempered, taught to endure cold, hunger and thirst, and endure pain. Much attention was paid to military gymnastic exercises. Young Spartans were taught to run, jump, throw a discus and a spear, fight, use hand-to-hand combat techniques, and sing martial songs. Music, singing and religious dances, which were of a combative, warlike nature, joined physical education.
“As for reading and writing,” wrote the Greek historian Plutarch, “the children learned only the most necessary, while the rest of their upbringing pursued only one goal: unquestioning obedience, endurance and the science of winning.”
The main task was to instill contempt and ruthlessness towards slaves among the rising slave owners. To this end, they took part in the so-called "cryptia", i.e., night raids on slaves, when a detachment of young Spartans cordoned off any city block or area outside the city and killed any helot slave.
Moral and political education was given during special conversations of state leaders with young people, whom they told about the fortitude and courage of their ancestors in the fight against the enemies of the fatherland, about the heroes. Children were accustomed to the clarity and brevity of answers ("laconic speech").
Young men 18-20 years old were transferred to a special group of ephebes and carried out military service. great attention was drawn to the military and physical education of girls. When men, suppressing uprisings of slaves or going to war, left the city and their homes, armed women guarded and kept the slaves in subjection.
Athenian education was organized differently. Economic life in Athens was not as closed as in Sparta. Private property was established for slaves. Athens in the 5th-4th centuries BC. e. culture flourished. Engels pointed out that in the diverse forms of Greek philosophy, all later types of worldview were in embryo. In the views of some philosophers of this time, elements of both materialism and dialectics are visible. Natural science, mathematics, history, art, literature, wonderful Greek architecture and sculpture developed.
The Athenians considered the ideal person to be the one who is beautiful physically and morally, and strove for a combination of mental, moral, aesthetic and physical education. But this ideal fully applied only to the social elite - the slave owners. Physical labor was considered the duty of only slaves. However, as a result of stratification among the slave owners, a significant group of poor freeborns and freedmen emerged, who were forced to engage in crafts or other activities, including teaching. They carried the contemptuous attitude of the wealthy slave owners.
In Athens, children under the age of 7 were brought up at home. Boys from this age began to attend school. Girls received further education in the family, learning to housework. The life of a woman in Athens was generally closed and concentrated in the female half of the house (gynaecium). Initially, children (from 7 to 13-14 years old) studied at the grammar and cytharist schools (either simultaneously or sequentially - first at the grammar school, and then the cytharist). These schools were private and paid, and therefore a significant part of the children of free-born, but without means citizens (the so-called demos) could not receive education in them. Classes in schools were taught by didascal teachers (“didasko” - I teach, later: “didactics” - teaching theory). The boys were accompanied to school by one of the slaves, who was called a teacher (from the words "pais" - a child, "agogane" - to lead).
At school, a grammarian was taught to read, write and count. The subjunctive method was used: the children memorized the letters by their names (alpha, beta, gamma, etc.), then put them into syllables, then syllables into words. To teach writing, waxed tablets were used, on which letters were written with a thin stick (style). They learned to count with the help of fingers, pebbles and a counting board, the so-called abacus, reminiscent of an abacus. At the citharist school, the boy was given a literary education and aesthetic education: he studied music, singing, recitation (excerpts from the Iliad and the Odyssey were read).
At the age of 13-14, boys moved to educational institution called palestra (school of wrestling). Here, for two or three years, they were engaged in a system of physical exercises, which was called the pentathlon and included running, jumping, wrestling, discus and javelin throwing, and swimming. They were interviewed on political and moral issues. Physical education and conversations in the palestra were led by the most famous citizens.
The most prosperous part of the youth went on to gymnasiums (later - gymnasiums), where they studied philosophy, politics, literature in order to prepare for participation in government, and continued to do gymnastics.
Finally, as in Sparta, young men from 18 to 20 years old passed into ephebia, where their military and political education continued. They learned to build fortifications, drive military vehicles, served in city garrisons, studied maritime affairs, participated in public festivals and theatrical performances.
The stratification within the slave-owning society in the Republic of Athens affected the field of education in that versatile education became available only to the children of wealthy slave-owners. The children of the bulk of the free-born population (demos) could not be educated in schools. Fathers taught their children the craft, and some even literacy. This was enshrined in law, according to which poor parents were obliged to teach their children one or another craft, otherwise the children would be freed in the future from material care for elderly parents. Freeborn laborers were viewed with contempt by the slave-owning nobility. Slaves were regarded only as a "talking tool."
4. The birth of educatorstheory in ancient Greece
The public speeches and writings of the ancient Greek scientists and philosophers Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Democritus contain valuable thoughts about education and training.
Socrates (469-399 BC) is an idealist philosopher. Despite his democratic origin (the son of a poor craftsman-sculptor), he was the ideologist of the conservative landed aristocracy, which was reflected in his philosophical and pedagogical views. He believed that the structure of the world, the physical nature of things, are unknowable, that people can only know themselves, that there are universal and immutable moral concepts. pedagogical subjunctive education education
The purpose of education, according to Socrates, should not be the study of the nature of things, but the knowledge of oneself, the improvement of morality.
Socrates - a philosopher-tribune, led conversations on moral issues in the squares and in other in public places, encouraged his listeners through questions and answers to find the "truth" themselves, without giving them ready-made provisions, conclusions. This method was called Socratic, from which the Socratic conversation by the method of leading questions later developed.
Plato (427-347 BC) is an idealist philosopher, a student of Socrates, the creator of the theory of objective idealism. He considered the “world of ideas” to be primary, and the world of sensible things to be secondary, he developed the idea of the existence of incorporeal forms of things, which he called “kinds” or “ideas”. He divided the world into the world of ideas and the world of phenomena. In his opinion, ideas are eternal and unchanging. Things for him are only shadows of the world of ideas.
Plato, a representative of the Athenian aristocracy, put forward the theory of the eternal domination of the aristocracy. He designed an ideal aristocratic state in which three social groups should exist: philosophers, warriors, artisans and farmers. Philosophers govern, warriors protect the state order, and the third group works and maintains the first two.
Slaves are also kept in this state. Both slaves and artisans and farmers are deprived of rights. They are characterized only by the base, sensual part of the soul and the virtue of moderation and obedience.
The purpose of this state, according to Plato, is an approximation to the highest idea of the good; it is carried out mainly through education, to which particular importance is attached.
Education, says Plato, should be organized by the state and correspond to the interests of the ruling groups - philosophers and warriors. In his pedagogical system, Plato sought to combine into a single system the features of Spartan and Athenian education that satisfied his ideas.
Children from 3 to 6 years old, under the guidance of state-appointed educators, play games on the playgrounds. Plato attached great importance to the game as a means of educating young children, as well as to the careful choice of material for telling children. He was a supporter of public education of children from the very younger age.
From 7 to 12 years old, children attend a public school, where they learn to read, write, count, music and sing, from 12 to 16 years old - a school of physical education - a palaestra with the usual gymnastic exercises. After the palestra, young men under 18 study arithmetic, geometry and astronomy, mainly for practical purposes (to train warriors). From 18 to 20 years old - ephebia, that is, military gymnastic training. From the age of 20, young men who have not shown a penchant for mental pursuits become warriors. A minority of young men who have shown the ability for abstract thinking go through the third, highest stage of education up to the age of 30, studying philosophy, as well as arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music theory, but already in philosophical and theoretical terms. They are preparing for public office. A few who have shown exceptional talents continue their philosophical education for another 5 years (up to the age of 35), after which from 35 to 50 years they become the rulers of the state.
Plato believes that the education of women should be similar to how it was in Sparta.
All education in the system of Plato is built on a deep contempt for physical labor, future philosophers and warriors are forbidden "even to think about it." The children of slaves are not allowed to be educated.
Plato expressed a number of important thoughts about preschool education, about a consistent state system of education, put forward the requirement for education through a positive example, etc.
Aristotle (884--322 BC), a student of Plato, educator of Alexander the Great, was the greatest philosopher and scientist of Ancient Greece. F. Engels wrote: “The ancient Greek philosophers were all born, spontaneous dialecticians, and Aristotle, the most universal head among them, had already explored the most essential forms of dialectical thinking” (Marx K. and Engels F. Soch., vol. 20, p. 19) .
V. I. Lenin emphasized that Aristotle “everywhere, at every step raises the question precisely about dialectics” (V. I. Lenin Poln. sobr. soch., vol. 29, p. 326), that Aristotle approaches in some issues to materialism.
In contrast to his teacher Plato, who divided the world into the world of ideas and the world of phenomena, Aristotle recognized that the world is one and the ideas of things are inseparable from the things themselves. The idea, according to Aristotle, can be likened to a form. In any object we can distinguish matter and form. In matter there are possibilities of things; matter becomes a thing, receiving one form or another. Thus, the substance of marble can become a statue, given a certain form.
All life is a process of development, which takes place not under the influence of external forces, but as internal development. Aristotle did not doubt the reality of the external world and the basis of knowledge lived sensory experience, sensations. Errors in knowledge occur, according to Aristotle, from false thinking, i.e., misinterpretation of sensory experience. It is very important that Aristotle pointed to the unity of form and content and put forward the idea of development.
In man, Aristotle distinguished between body and soul, which exist inseparably, like matter and form. According to Aristotle, there are three types of soul: vegetable, which manifests itself in nutrition and reproduction; the animal, which, beyond the properties of the vegetable, manifests itself in sensations and desires; rational, which, in addition to plant and animal properties, is also characterized by thinking or cognition. In man the animal part of the soul, inasmuch as it is subject to reason, may be called the will.
Three types of soul, according to Aristotle, correspond to three aspects of education: physical, moral and mental. The purpose of education, in his opinion, is the development of the higher aspects of the soul - rational and strong-willed. Just as every substance contains the possibility of development, so nature gives man only the germ of abilities; the possibility of development is carried out by education. Nature has closely linked the three kinds of souls, and in education we must follow nature, closely linking physical, moral and mental education.
The state, according to Aristotle, as a whole has one ultimate goal - for all citizens, identical education is needed, and care for this education should be the concern of the state, and not a matter of private initiative. Family and social education should be interconnected. Speaking about the fact that the state should take care of identical education, Aristotle did not mean slaves.
Summarizing the historical experience of mankind, Aristotle established age periodization and divided the life of a growing person into three periods: 1) up to 7 years, 2) from 7 to 14 years (puberty) and 3) from the onset of puberty to 21 years. In his opinion, this periodization corresponds to human nature.
Aristotle gave a number of recommendations for family education. Until the age of 7, children are brought up in a family. It is necessary to feed the child with food appropriate for his age, to ensure the hygiene of movements and the gradual hardening of the child. From the age of 7, boys must attend public schools.
Physical education precedes mental education. Boys must first be given into the hands of gymnastics teachers; but at the same time, children should not be excessively tired until the body is strong, only light exercises are permissible. Aristotle believed that physical, moral and mental education are interconnected. During elementary education, in addition to gymnastics, one should, in his opinion, teach reading, writing, grammar, drawing and music. Young men should receive a serious education at school: study literature, history, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and music. Music must be studied in order to develop a sense of beauty, making sure that music, like drawing, does not pursue professional goals. Women, whose nature, according to Aristotle, is different from the nature of men, do not receive the same education as they do.
In the field of moral education, Aristotle, who put forward a strong-willed, active principle in his philosophy, attached great importance to moral skills and exercises in moral deeds. Natural inclinations, development of skills (accustoming, frequent repetition of desirable actions) and reason - these are the three sources of moral education.
To develop virtue, thoughtful exercises are needed that form the habits and skills of moral behavior. In every desire and activity, according to Aristotle, there can be a lack, an excess and a middle. And in everything there is only the middle, only the balance is good and useful. Hence, virtue is behavior that avoids in everything the extremes of both excess and deficiency. This behavior should be practiced. Aristotle, unlike Plato, believed that the family is not excluded from education, it is mainly concerned with moral education.
The views of Aristotle had a great influence on the development of ancient pedagogy. However, in the Middle Ages, when the philosophy of Aristotle was very popular, “priestry killed the living in Aristotle and immortalized the dead” (V. I. Lenin, Poln. sobr. soch., vol. 29, p. 325).
The pinnacle of ancient Greek philosophy is the views of the outstanding materialist philosopher Democritus (460-370 BC), the creator of the atomistic theory. He pays a lot of attention in his writings to education, refers to the laws of nature, to true knowledge, which destroys superstition and fear. He rejects belief in the gods, believing that the "will of the gods" is only an invention, the imagination of people.
One of the first Democritus put forward the question of the natural conformity of education. “Nature and nurture are alike,” he wrote. Democritus pointed out that "the doctrine produces beautiful things only on the basis of labor", emphasized the enormous role of labor in education and demanded "constant labor, which becomes easier from the habit of it." He warned against a bad example and considered it very important to exercise in moral deeds.
Democritus awakened a critical attitude towards the slaveholding foundations, called for a real knowledge of nature, for the combination of education with labor.
5. Education and school in ancient Rome
Slavery grew in republican Rome; the accumulation of wealth led to the stratification of the population, which led to the division of schools according to property and nobility of origin into elementary and higher levels - grammar schools, and later schools of speakers.
Elementary schools, private and paid, served a certain part of the poor and ignoble free-born population (plebeians), taught reading, writing and counting, introduced them to the laws of the country. The rich and noble preferred to give their sons their initial education at home.
In grammar schools, also private and paid, the sons of privileged parents studied Latin and Greek, rhetoric (the art of eloquence with some information on literature and history). The development of these schools was caused by the need to master the art of oratory for those who aspired to occupy elected leadership positions.
In the last centuries of republican Rome, special schools of rhetoricians (orators) arose, where noble youth studied rhetoric, philosophy and jurisprudence, Greek, mathematics and music for high pay, in order to later occupy the highest government positions. After the conquest of Greece (II century BC), Greek culture spread in Rome and the Greek language became the language of the nobility.
From the time of the rise of the Roman Empire, the emperors turned grammar schools and schools of rhetoric into state schools, the task of which was to train officials loyal to the imperial power. The emperors sought to turn the teachers of these schools into obedient conductors of their policy, for which they were assigned salaries and provided with various benefits. They paid special attention to the schools of rhetors.
When Christianity was declared the dominant religion and the backbone of the imperial power, representatives of the Christian clergy began to be appointed to the positions of teachers, and all the work of the school acquired a pronounced ecclesiastical character. Christianity was hostile to ancient Greek culture, to ancient science and school.
6. Development of pedagogical and methodologicalEuropean provisions in ancient Rome
The most famous of the Roman educators was Mark Fabius Quintilian (42-118 AD). The surviving fragments of his work "On the Education of the Orator" allow us to judge the main pedagogical views author. Quintilian was well acquainted with contemporary Greek and Roman philosophical and pedagogical literature. He summarized his extensive experience as a teacher of the school of rhetors. In the history of pedagogy, this is one of the first works closely related to the practice of the school.
Quintilian believed that the children of free citizens have great natural abilities. In his opinion, stupidity and incompetence among them is a rare occurrence. The child should be brought up in school, the teacher should approach each pupil carefully and attentively. The teacher himself must be educated, love children, be restrained, not easily distribute rewards and punishments, be an example for students and carefully study them. Every teacher must go through all the stages of education. A teacher in an advanced school must first teach in an elementary school.
Quintilian attached great importance to the development of the child's speech with early age. For this purpose, he recommended taking mothers and nannies with good pronunciation into the house, selecting comrades for the child's games, carefully monitoring the behavior of the children around the child and eliminating bad comrades from him.
The study of language and music, according to Quintilian, contributes to the development of good pronunciation, improves the style of speech, makes it more expressive. In order to cultivate logical thinking, harmony and consistency of thought, he considered it necessary to study mathematics (arithmetic and geometry), to build training based on theoretical instructions, imitation and exercises. In particular, it was recognized as important that the foundations of knowledge be laid firmly, without haste.
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Authors' preface to the 2nd supplemented and revised edition of the monograph "Psychology and Psychotherapy of the Family"....................................................................... ................................................. ................................................. ................................................... 3
Preface to the first edition .................................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ........... 7
Preface to the second supplemented and revised edition of the monograph "Psychology and Psychotherapy of the Family"................................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ............................................. 7
Introduction ................................................ ................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ........ 9
Organizational relationship of family psychotherapy with other types of family assistance .............................................................. ........... eleven
Modern family and violations of its functioning .............................................................. ................................................. ............. 13
Normally functioning families, normal marriages. Dysfunctional Families and Marriages .................. 15
Stages of marital relationship ............................................................... ................................................. ................................................. ........ 16
Family disruption .............................................................................. ................................................. ................................................ 18
Family as a source of psychic trauma .............................................................. ................................................. ......................................... 22
The state of global family dissatisfaction .............................................................. ................................................. ................. 23
"Family anxiety" .............................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ................................. 24
Family-caused unbearable neuropsychic and physical stress .............................................................. ................... 25
Feelings of guilt associated with the family ................................................. ................................................. ........... 27
Ways to identify family-conditioned psychotraumatic conditions.................................................................................. .................................... 28
Family as a factor that determines an individual's response to psychic trauma ............................... 28
Chapter 2 ................................................. ........................................ thirty
Violation of the personal prerequisites for the normal functioning of the family .............................................................. ................ 31
The appearance in the family of a mentally ill person. Structural and functional features of families with a mentally ill ..... 31
The main directions of development of the family of the mentally ill. "Watershed Theory".................................................................. ...... 36
The main directions of psychotherapeutic assistance to the family of an individual with severe neuropsychiatric disorders ................................................. ................................................. ................................................... 43
The family of the neuropsychiatric patient and health care. Relationship Models .................................................................. ........... 45
Modern programs of assistance to families with a mentally ill .............................................................. ................................................. ...... 48
Basic forms of family assistance .............................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ............ 50
Violation of the ideas of family members about the family and each other's personality .............................................. ................................. 52
Representations of family members about their family .............................................. ................................................. ................................................... 52
Ways of developing the internal image of the family .............................................. ................................................. ............................................... 63
Naive family postulates ............................................................... ................................................. ................................................. ............. 72
The role of family postulates ............................................................... ................................................. ................................................. ................... 74
Representational systems and their role in the formation of relationships in the family ............ 85
The concept of representative systems. Modern ideas .................................................................. ......................................... 86
Neuro-Psychological Foundations of Inlivual Differences in Sensory Perception and Representation (Review of the Works of the Russian Psychological School)............................................................... ................................................. ................................................. ........... 95
Violation of the communication process as a mechanism for the formation of conflict in the family.................................................. ................. 98
Violation of interpersonal communication in the family .............................................. ................................................. ................. 106
The main types of violations of the communication process in the family .............................................. ................................................. 107
Theory of family-necessary (functional) information.................................................................. ................................................. ......... 109
Causes of violations of interpersonal communication in the family. Their identification ............................................. 116
Violation of family integration mechanisms .............................................................. ................................................. ................................... 120
Family: its structure and integration .............................................. ................................................. ................................................. ...... 120
Family contradictions and their solution as a mechanism for family integration ......................................... 126
Main types of solution family problems(reintegrating and disintegrating solutions) .............................................. 127
Mechanisms of family integration ............................................................... ................................................. ................................................. ..... 134
Family myths .................................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ................................... 158
Violation of the structural-role aspect of family life.................................................................. ................................... 159
Stages and mechanisms of pathological family inheritance in neurosis: the paradigm of ontogenetically oriented family psychotherapy................................................................. ................................................. ................................................. 168
Structure and age dynamics of the five most common personality profiles .............................................................................. 171
Stages and mechanisms of pathological family inheritance .............................................................. ............................................... 177
CHAPTER 3. METHODS OF FAMILY DIAGNOSIS AND PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC CORRECTION OF FAMILY RELATIONS. ................................................. ................................................. ............................................... 186
The study of the family and the diagnosis of its disorders .............................................. ................................................. ................................. 187
Methods of psychotherapeutic correction of family relationships .............................................. ....................... 206
CHAPTER 4. HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF FAMILY PSYCHOTHERAPY: MAIN DIRECTIONS AND METHODS..... 219
The history of the development of family psychotherapy .................................................... ................................................. .................................... 220
Palo Alto School............................................................... ................................................. ................................................. ...................................... 224
Psychoanalytic (psychodynamic) family psychotherapy .............................................................. ................................. 230
Family systemic psychotherapy .............................................................. ................................................. ................................................. 232
Theoretical Provisions .................................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ................. 233
Strategic family therapy .............................................................. ................................................. ............................................... 282
Family communicative psychotherapy .............................................................. ................................................. ................................. 285
Theoretical justification .............................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ............... 285
Techniques of family communicative psychotherapy .............................................................. ................................................. ....................... 286
Family experiential therapy .............................................................. ................... 287
Conceptual position: dialectics ....................................................... ................................................. ............................................... 288
Family treatment: a team instead of one psychotherapist .............................................. ................................................. ............... 290
Treatment process .................................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ................................... 291
Family psychotherapy of constructs .............................................................. ................................................. ............................................. 305
Family Behavioral Therapy .................................................................. ................................................. ......................................... 310
Marriage Psychotherapy .................................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ............... 313
Family Counseling .................................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ............. 320
Chapter 5 ................................................. ......................... 322
Family psychotherapy for neurotic, somatoform and psychosomatic disorders...................... 323
Family psychotherapy in schizophrenia .............................................................. ................................................. ...................................... 336
Family psychotherapy for accentuations and personality disorders in adolescents.................................................................. ... 352
Determining the degree of character deviation with the help of PDO in hyperthymnoll, epileptoid, hysteroid and unstable types................................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ......................................... 353
Tactics of family psychotherapy of patients with accentuations and personality disorders .............................................................. ..... 364
Family psychotherapy for alcoholism .............................................................. ................................................. ................................... 367
Conclusion................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ................................................. 374
applications................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ............................................. 375
Methods of studying the family in the course of family psychotherapy .............................................................. ................................................. ..... 376
Annex 1. Methodology "Family-conditioned condition" .............................................. ................................................. 377
Appendix 2. The Family Anxiety Analysis Questionnaire (ACT) .............................................. ................................................. ........... 378
Appendix 3. Questionnaire "Constructive-destructive family" (CDS) ................................................................ ................................... 379
Annex 4. Diagnostic procedure "Naive family psychology» (NSP) ............................................... 380
Annex 5. Questionnaire "Sensory Preferences".................................................................. ................................................. .................... 381
Annex 6. Methodology "Sensory preferences in the family" .............................................. ................................................. .... 384
Appendix 7. Methodical procedure "Sympathy" or PTS "Preferred type of sympathy" .................................. 385
Appendix 8. Test “Age. Floor. Role "(VLOOKUP).................................................. ................................................. ............................... 389
Annex 9 ................................................. .... 393
Annex 10. The method of auto-identification and identification by verbal character portraits.................................................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ........... 394
Annex 11. Analysis of family relationships (AC B) .............................................. ................................................. ...... 398
Questionnaire for parents of children aged 3-10 years .............................................. ................................................. ............................ 398
Questionnaire for parents of adolescents aged 11 to 21 .............................................. ................................................. .401
Answer sheet ............................................................... ................................................. ................................................. ................................. 404
Summary................................................. ................................................. ................................................. ................................................. .... 405
List of main literature .............................................................. ................................................. ................................................. .. 408
EDUCATION IN THE PRIMARY SOCIETY. EDUCATION, SCHOOL AND PEDAGOGICAL THEORIES IN A SLAVE SOCIETY AND UNDER FEODALISM EDUCATION IN A PRIMARY SOCIETY
At the earliest stage of the development of society, during the period of the primitive communal system, living conditions were very difficult, and in order to survive, people had to stick together, work only collectively. Everything in this Society was collective, there was no social inequality and classes, people lived in common dwellings and raised children together, who belonged to the whole family.
In a classless society, all children were brought up equally, involving them early in the activities available to them. From an early age, they took part in obtaining food - they collected edible plants and fruits. With age. the degree of their participation in joint work with adults increased. Together with. elders and under their guidance, children and adolescents acquired the necessary life. and labor skills. It was natural to have some difference in the upbringing of boys and girls. Boys participated with men in hunting and fishing, they were taught to wrestle, shoot from a bow, ride a horse; girls helped women cook food, make clothes, dishes. All children were taught to take care of animals, to engage in agriculture; with the development of crafts, they were taught crafts.
Children were indispensable participants in community holidays, which included ritual games, dances, singing, and sacrifices. The tribal community instructed older, wiser people to acquaint the younger generation with the rituals, traditions and history of the clan, with religious beliefs, to educate the younger generation in respect for the elders and the dead. A large place in the education of morals and behavior of children was occupied by oral folk art: legends, songs, etc.
The transition of boys and girls to full members of the clan was preceded by special training under the guidance of the most authoritative and wise people. It ended with an initiation, which consisted of public tests, which tested the readiness of young people to fulfill the duties of an adult member of a tribal society.
N.A. Konstantinov, E.N. Medynsky, M.F. Shabaeva
As a result of further historical development, the primitive communal system was replaced by a new social formation - the slave-owning system. In the ancient East, the first class societies arose and the foundations of material and spiritual culture were laid, which was to some extent accepted and processed by the peoples of Greece and Rome.
School in the countries of the ancient East.
In the countries of the ancient East, special institutions (schools) increasingly became the privilege of the ruling groups of the population.
In ancient times, a school was born and strengthened in India. For thousands of years, the so-called communal school, created by communities of simple farmers, has preserved its existence there. Along with it, schools in cities, at temples for the noble and rich, were of great importance.
Schools also developed in Asia Minor and Africa (Egypt). In a number of states, there was agriculture associated with artificial irrigation, using such natural phenomena as periodic floods of rivers.
People observed natural phenomena, learned to predict floods, gained experience in building dams and various structures. The beginnings of the sciences appeared: astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, medicine; the simplest machines began to be created for buildings (gates, "tacks", etc.). All this information was concentrated in the hands of the ruling groups of the population, often clothed in mysticism and mystery. In addition to closed priestly or court schools, schools also arose for the needs of managing the state and economy - these are schools of scribes, schools of employees, etc. Gradually, the method of writing changed in some countries. So, for example, in Egypt, in priestly schools, complex hieroglyphic ("sacred") writing was taught, and in schools for scribes, a simplified (hieratic) writing was used.
When teaching writing and counting, some facilitating learning techniques were used, for example, counting on multi-colored pebbles, simplified calculation methods, etc. Finger counting was widespread among all peoples.
In ancient China, there were lower and higher schools. In higher schools, the children of the privileged learned to read and write in a complex hieroglyphic way, studied philosophy and morality (of a religious nature), the works of writers and poets. Some information on astronomy was also reported there.
In the most ancient manuscripts (China, India, Egypt, etc.) there are valuable thoughts about education, about the requirements for a teacher and pupil.
Discipline, especially in scribal schools, was severe, and corporal punishment was widely used. “The ear of a boy is on his back,” says one ancient Egyptian manuscript. Most of the children of common people and slaves received no training in schools; the basic knowledge and skills related to work and norms of behavior were communicated to them by their parents and those around them.
Education, school and pedagogical thought in Ancient Greece.
Ancient Greece was a country that consisted of a number of small slave-owning states (policies). The most influential of these were Laconia, with the chief city of Sparta, and Attica, with the chief city of Athens. In each of these states, special education systems have developed: Spartan and Athenian. The difference between these two systems was due to some features of the economic and political development and the state of culture of the states. But both states were slave-owning states, and the system of public education served only the children of slave-owners. Slaves throughout Greece were regarded only as "talking tools." They were deprived of all human rights, including the right to study in schools.
Laconia (Sparta) occupied a territory in the southeastern part of the Peloponnese, on the coast of which there were no convenient harbors. The country was dominated by agriculture, based on the labor of slaves. The small, semi-free, underprivileged population was mostly artisans. Nine thousand families of slave owners held over 250 thousand enslaved population under their rule. The exploitation of slaves in Sparta was brutal, and the slaves often revolted. The life of the Spartans was subject to the main requirement - to be in a state of military readiness, to show cruelty and violence against slaves.
The upbringing was carried out by the state, it pursued the task of preparing warriors from the children of the Spartans, steadfast and hardened, future slave owners.
From the age of 7, Spartiate boys, who had lived at home until that time, were placed in a special kind of state educational institutions called agella, where they were brought up and trained until the age of 18. Their leader was a pedon known to the authorities. Particular attention was paid to the physical education of adolescents: they were tempered, taught to endure cold, hunger and thirst, and endure pain. Much attention was paid to military gymnastic exercises. Young Spartans were taught to run, jump, throw a discus and a spear, fight, use hand-to-hand combat techniques, and sing martial songs. Music, singing and religious dances, which were of a combative, warlike nature, joined physical education.
“As for reading and writing,” wrote the Greek historian Plutarch, “the children learned only the most necessary, while the rest of their upbringing pursued only one goal: unquestioning obedience, endurance and the science of winning.”
The main task was to instill contempt and ruthlessness towards slaves among the rising slave owners. To this end, they took part in the so-called "cryptia", i.e., night raids on slaves, when a detachment of young Spartans cordoned off any city block or area outside the city and killed any helot slave.
Moral and political education was given during special conversations of state leaders with young people, whom they told about the fortitude and courage of their ancestors in the fight against the enemies of the fatherland, about the heroes. Children were accustomed to the clarity and brevity of answers ("laconic speech").
Young men 18-20 years old were transferred to a special group of ephebes and carried out military service. Much attention was paid to the military and physical education of girls. When men, suppressing uprisings of slaves or going to war, left the city and their homes, armed women guarded and kept the slaves in subjection.
Athenian education was organized differently. Economic life in Athens was not as closed as in Sparta. Private property was established for slaves. Athens in the 5th-4th centuries BC. e. culture flourished. Engels pointed out that in the diverse forms of Greek philosophy, all later types of worldview were in embryo. In the views of some philosophers of this time, elements of both materialism and dialectics are visible. Natural science, mathematics, history, art, literature, wonderful Greek architecture and sculpture developed.
The Athenians considered the ideal person to be the one who is beautiful physically and morally, and strove for a combination of mental, moral, aesthetic and physical education. But this ideal fully applied only to the social elite-slave-owners. Physical labor was considered the duty of only slaves. However, as a result of stratification among the slave owners, a significant group of poor freeborns and freedmen emerged, who were forced to engage in crafts or other activities, including teaching. They carried the contemptuous attitude of the wealthy slave owners.
In Athens, children under the age of 7 were brought up at home. Boys from this age began to attend school. Girls received further education in the family, learning to housework. The life of a woman in Athens was generally closed and concentrated in the female half of the house (gynaecium). Initially, children (from 7 to 13-14 years old) studied at the grammar and cytharist schools (either simultaneously or sequentially - first at the grammar school, and then the cytharist). These schools were private and paid, and therefore a significant part of the children of free-born, but without means citizens (the so-called demos) could not receive education in them. Classes in schools were taught by didascal teachers (“didasko” - I teach, later: “didactics” - teaching theory). The boys were accompanied to school by one of the slaves, who was called a teacher (from the words "pais" - a child, "agogane" - to lead).
At school, a grammarian was taught to read, write and count. The subjunctive method was used: the children memorized the letters by their names (alpha, beta, gamma, etc.), then put them into syllables, then syllables into words. To teach writing, waxed tablets were used, on which letters were written with a thin stick (style). They learned to count with the help of fingers, pebbles and a counting board, the so-called abacus, reminiscent of an abacus. At the citharist school, the boy was given a literary education and aesthetic education: he studied music, singing, recitation (excerpts from the Iliad and the Odyssey were read).
At the age of 13-14, the boys moved to an educational institution called palestra (wrestling school). Here, for two or three years, they were engaged in a system of physical exercises, which was called the pentathlon and included running, jumping, wrestling, discus and javelin throwing, and swimming. They were interviewed on political and moral issues. Physical education and conversations in the palestra were led by the most famous citizens.
The wealthiest part of the youth went on to the gymnasium (later - the gymnasium), where they studied philosophy, politics, literature in order to prepare for participation in government, and continued to do gymnastics.
Finally, as in Sparta, young men from 18 to 20 years old passed into ephebia, where their military and political education continued. They learned to build fortifications, drive military vehicles, served in city garrisons, studied maritime affairs, participated in public festivals and theatrical performances.
The stratification within the slave-owning society in the Republic of Athens affected the field of education in that versatile education became available only to the children of wealthy slave-owners. The children of the bulk of the free-born population (demos) could not be educated in schools. Fathers taught their children the craft, and some even literacy. This was enshrined in law, according to which poor parents were obliged to teach their children one or another craft, otherwise the children would be freed in the future from material care for elderly parents. Freeborn laborers were viewed with contempt by the slave-owning nobility. Slaves were regarded only as a "talking tool."
The origin of pedagogical theory in Ancient Greece.
The public speeches and writings of the ancient Greek scientists and philosophers Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Democritus contain valuable thoughts about education and training.
Socrates (469-399 BC) is an idealist philosopher. Despite his democratic origin (the son of a poor craftsman-sculptor), he was the ideologist of the conservative landed aristocracy, which was reflected in his philosophical and pedagogical views. He believed that the structure of the world, the physical nature of things, are unknowable, that people can only know themselves, that there are universal and immutable moral concepts.
The purpose of education, according to Socrates, should not be the study of the nature of things, but the knowledge of oneself, the improvement of morality.
Socrates, a philosopher-tribune, conducted conversations on moral issues in the squares and in other public places, encouraged his listeners to look for the “truth” themselves through questions and answers, without giving them ready-made provisions and conclusions. This method was called Socratic, from which the Socratic conversation by the method of leading questions later developed.
Plato (427-347 BC) - idealist philosopher, student of Socrates, creator of the theory of objective idealism. He considered the “world of ideas” to be primary, and the world of sensible things to be secondary, he developed the idea of the existence of incorporeal forms of things, which he called “kinds” or “ideas”. He divided the world into the world of ideas and the world of phenomena. In his opinion, ideas are eternal and unchanging. Things for him are only shadows of the world of ideas.
Plato, a representative of the Athenian aristocracy, put forward the theory of the eternal domination of the aristocracy. He designed an ideal aristocratic state in which three social groups should exist: philosophers, warriors, artisans and farmers. Philosophers govern, warriors protect the state order, and the third group works and maintains the first two.
Slaves are also kept in this state. Both slaves and artisans and farmers are deprived of rights. They are characterized only by the base, sensual part of the soul and the virtue of moderation and obedience.
The purpose of this state, according to Plato, is an approximation to the highest idea of the good; it is carried out mainly through education, to which particular importance is attached.
Education, says Plato, must be organized by the state and meet the interests of the dominant groups - philosophers and warriors. In his pedagogical system, Plato sought to combine into a single system the features of Spartan and Athenian education that satisfied his ideas.
Children from 3 to 6 years old, under the guidance of state-appointed educators, play games on the playgrounds. Plato attached great importance to the game as a means of educating young children, as well as to the careful choice of material for telling children. He was an advocate for public education of children from a very young age.
From 7 to 12 years old, children attend a public school where they learn reading, writing, counting, music and singing, from 12 to 16 years old - a physical education school-palestra with the usual gymnastic exercises. After the palestra, young men under 18 study arithmetic, geometry and astronomy, mainly for practical purposes (to train warriors). From 18 to 20 years old - ephebia, i.e. military gymnastic training. From the age of 20, young men who have not shown a penchant for mental pursuits become warriors. A minority of young men who have shown the ability for abstract thinking go through the third, highest stage of education up to the age of 30, studying philosophy, as well as arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music theory, but already in philosophical and theoretical terms. They are preparing for public office. A few who have shown exceptional talents continue their philosophical education for another 5 years (up to the age of 35), after which from 35 to 50 years they become the rulers of the state.
Plato believes that the education of women should be similar to how it was in Sparta.
All education in the system of Plato is built on a deep contempt for physical labor, future philosophers and warriors are forbidden "even to think about it." The children of slaves are not allowed to be educated.
Plato expressed a number of important thoughts about preschool education, about a consistent state system of education, put forward the requirement for education through a positive example, etc.
Aristotle (884-322 BC), a student of Plato, educator of Alexander the Great, was the greatest philosopher and scientist of ancient Greece. F. Engels wrote: “The ancient Greek philosophers were all born, spontaneous dialecticians, and Aristotle, the most universal head among them, had already explored the most essential forms of dialectical thinking” (Marx K. and Engels F. Soch., vol. 20, p. 19) .
V. I. Lenin emphasized that Aristotle “everywhere, at every step raises the question precisely about dialectics” (V. I. Lenin Poln. sobr. soch., vol. 29, p. 326), that Aristotle approaches in some issues to materialism.
In contrast to his teacher Plato, who divided the world into the world of ideas and the world of phenomena, Aristotle recognized that the world is one and the ideas of things are inseparable from the things themselves. The idea, according to Aristotle, can be likened to a form. In any object we can distinguish matter and form. In matter there are possibilities of things; matter becomes a thing, receiving one form or another. Thus, the substance of marble can become a statue, given a certain form.
All life is a process of development, which takes place not under the influence of external forces, but as an internal development. Aristotle did not doubt the reality of the external world and the basis of knowledge lived sensory experience, sensations. Errors in knowledge occur, according to Aristotle, from false thinking, i.e., misinterpretation of sensory experience. It is very important that Aristotle pointed to the unity of form and content and put forward the idea of development.
In man, Aristotle distinguished between body and soul, which exist inseparably, like matter and form. According to Aristotle, there are three types of soul: vegetable, which manifests itself in nutrition and reproduction; the animal, which, beyond the properties of the vegetable, manifests itself in sensations and desires; rational, which, in addition to plant and animal properties, is also characterized by thinking or cognition. In man the animal part of the soul, inasmuch as it is subject to reason, may be called the will.
Three types of soul, according to Aristotle, correspond to three aspects of education: physical, moral and mental. The purpose of education, in his opinion, is to develop the higher aspects of the soul - rational and strong-willed. Just as every substance contains the possibility of development, so nature gives man only the germ of abilities; the possibility of development is carried out by education. Nature has closely linked the three kinds of souls, and in education we must follow nature, closely linking physical, moral and mental education.
The state, according to Aristotle, as a whole has one ultimate goal - identical education is needed for all citizens, and care for this education should be the concern of the state, and not a matter of private initiative. Family and social education should be interconnected. Speaking about the fact that the state should take care of identical education, Aristotle did not mean slaves.
Summarizing the historical experience of mankind, Aristotle established age periodization and divided the life of a growing person into three periods: 1) up to 7 years, 2) from 7 to 14 years (puberty) and 3) from the onset of puberty to 21 years. In his opinion, this periodization corresponds to human nature.
Aristotle gave a number of recommendations for family education. Until the age of 7, children are brought up in a family. It is necessary to feed the child with food appropriate for his age, to ensure the hygiene of movements and the gradual hardening of the child. From the age of 7, boys must attend public schools.
Physical education precedes mental education. Boys must first be given into the hands of gymnastics teachers; but at the same time, children should not be excessively tired until the body is strong, only light exercises are permissible. Aristotle believed that physical, moral and mental education are interconnected. During elementary education, in addition to gymnastics, one should, in his opinion, teach reading, writing, grammar, drawing and music. Young men should receive a serious education at school: study literature, history, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and music. Music must be studied in order to develop a sense of beauty, making sure that music, like drawing, does not pursue professional goals. Women, whose nature, according to Aristotle, is different from the nature of men, do not receive the same education as they do.
In the field of moral education, Aristotle, who put forward a strong-willed, active principle in his philosophy, attached great importance to moral skills and exercises in moral deeds. Natural inclinations, development of skills (accustoming, frequent repetition of desirable actions) and reason - these are the three sources of moral education.
To develop virtue, thoughtful exercises are needed that form the habits and skills of moral behavior. In every desire and activity, according to Aristotle, there can be a lack, an excess and a middle. And in everything there is only the middle, only the balance is good and useful. Hence, virtue is behavior that avoids in everything the extremes of both excess and deficiency. This behavior should be practiced. Aristotle, unlike Plato, believed that the family is not excluded from education, it is mainly concerned with moral education.
The views of Aristotle had a great influence on the development of ancient pedagogy. However, in the Middle Ages, when the philosophy of Aristotle was very popular, “priestry killed the living in Aristotle and immortalized the dead” (V. I. Lenin, Poln. sobr. soch., vol. 29, p. 325).
The pinnacle of ancient Greek philosophy is the views of the outstanding materialist philosopher Democritus (460-370 BC), the creator of the atomistic theory. He pays a lot of attention in his writings to education, refers to the laws of nature, to true knowledge, which destroys superstition and fear. He rejects belief in gods, believing that "the will of the gods" is only a fiction, the imagination of people.
One of the first Democritus put forward the question of the natural conformity of education. “Nature and nurture are alike,” he wrote. Democritus pointed out that "the doctrine produces beautiful things only on the basis of labor", emphasized the enormous role of labor in education and demanded "constant labor, which becomes easier from the habit of it." He warned against a bad example and considered it very important to exercise in moral deeds.
Democritus awakened a critical attitude towards the slaveholding foundations, called for a real knowledge of nature, for the combination of education with labor.
Education and school in ancient Rome.
Slavery grew in republican Rome; the accumulation of wealth led to the stratification of the population, which led to the division of schools according to property and nobility of origin into elementary and higher levels - grammar schools, and later schools of speakers.
Elementary schools, private and paid, served a certain part of the poor and ignoble free-born population (plebeians), taught reading, writing and counting, introduced them to the laws of the country. The rich and noble preferred to give their sons their initial education at home.
In grammar schools, also private and paid, the sons of privileged parents studied Latin and Greek, rhetoric (the art of eloquence with some information on literature and history). The development of these schools was caused by the need to master the art of oratory for those who aspired to occupy elected leadership positions.
In the last centuries of republican Rome, special schools of rhetoricians (orators) arose, where noble youth studied rhetoric, philosophy and jurisprudence, Greek, mathematics and music for high pay, in order to later occupy the highest government positions. After the conquest of Greece (II century BC), Greek culture spread in Rome and the Greek language became the language of the nobility.
From the time of the rise of the Roman Empire, the emperors turned grammar schools and schools of rhetoric into state schools, the task of which was to train officials loyal to the imperial power. The emperors sought to turn the teachers of these schools into obedient conductors of their policy, for which they were assigned salaries and provided with various benefits. They paid special attention to the schools of rhetors.
When Christianity was declared the dominant religion and the backbone of the imperial power, representatives of the Christian clergy began to be appointed to the positions of teachers, and all the work of the school acquired a pronounced ecclesiastical character. Christianity was hostile to ancient Greek culture, to ancient science and school.
Development of pedagogical and methodological provisions in Ancient Rome.
The most famous of the Roman educators was Marcus Fabius Quintilian (AD 42-118). The surviving fragments of his work "On the Education of the Orator" allow us to judge the main pedagogical views of the author. Quintilian was well acquainted with contemporary Greek and Roman philosophical and pedagogical literature. He summarized his extensive experience as a teacher of the school of rhetors. In the history of pedagogy, this is one of the first works closely related to the practice of the school.
Quintilian believed that the children of free citizens have great natural abilities. In his opinion, stupidity and inability among them is a rare occurrence. The child should be brought up in school, the teacher should approach each pupil carefully and attentively. The teacher himself must be educated, love children, be restrained, not easily distribute rewards and punishments, be an example for students and carefully study them. Every teacher must go through all the stages of education. A teacher in an advanced school must first teach in an elementary school.
Quintilian attached great importance to the development of a child's speech from an early age. For this purpose, he recommended taking mothers and nannies with good pronunciation into the house, selecting comrades for the child's games, carefully monitoring the behavior of the children around the child and eliminating bad comrades from him.
The study of language and music, according to Quintilian, contributes to the development of good pronunciation, improves the style of speech, makes it more expressive. In order to cultivate logical thinking, harmony and consistency of thought, he considered it necessary to study mathematics (arithmetic and geometry), to build training based on theoretical instructions, imitation and exercises. In particular, it was recognized as important that the foundations of knowledge be laid firmly, without haste.
